STRATEGY

Historical perspective reveals that the very essence of the concept of strategy has always been the notion of war, and thus throughout history, foundational works on strategy have generally consisted of texts describing various wars and examining how they should be conducted.

When examining the historical background of the formation, methods, and characteristics of strategy, it becomes evident that it originated largely from mythologies. In Scandinavian mythology, the prominent figure Odin embodies strategies involving deception and camouflage; another form found in much of Greek mythology is transformation, concealment, and invisibility; in the Ergenekon Epic, the melting of glaciers to enable the Turks to leave the plain is presented as a natural consequence of overpopulation, leading nomadic societies to develop aggressive strategies; while settled state entities such as the Sumerian and Ancient Greek city-states engaged in struggles for survival within their systems, they adopted defensive strategies; the establishment of the Attic Delian Sea League, Athens’ first international organization in response to the Persian threat and with a military character, provides distinct examples in the history of strategy.

Although strategy is generally perceived as a military concept, it is in fact a distinct concept from “tactics,” which is used in a military context. The concept most closely related to strategy, which is expressed through planning, programming, scenario development, and decision-making, is tactics. The most important distinguishing feature between these two concepts is time and space. Strategy corresponds to long-term and broad-area plans and programs (becoming a superpower), while tactics refers to planning within a limited area and short-term horizon (becoming a regional power). If we consider that not all international relations develop within a context of conflict or war, actors develop strategies according to the nature and trajectory of each complex relationship. In international relations, strategy denotes the entirety of methods employed in interactions among international political actors. Multinational corporations, states, international organizations, and other entities all develop various strategies to realize their medium- and long-term interests and to neutralize threats to their activities and objectives.

The development of strategic thought is generally examined in three periods: the “Classical Period” before the 18th century, the “Modern Period” after the 18th century, and the “Nuclear Arms Race and Cold War Period,” when Strategic Studies began to be recognized as an academic discipline.

The use of the concept of strategy has become increasingly widespread on national and international levels due to the growing number of actors and the increasing complexity of mutual relations. As individuals, families, societies, institutions, businesses, states, and state groups as well as international organizations face greater challenges in preserving and sustaining their existence, these challenges have diversified and become more complex, leading to an increase in threats. Just as the concept of security is examined alongside the concept of threat, the concept of strategy is also largely evaluated in relation to security. Strategy has come to encompass actions and practices aimed at preserving, sustaining, and developing one’s own existence while neutralizing those who threaten the existence of others.

Various definitions of the concept of strategy have been proposed. The Turkish word “strateji,” derived from the French “stratégie,” has no direct Turkish equivalent. The General Turkish Dictionary of the Turkish Language Association defines strategy as “the science and art of coordinating political, economic, psychological, and military power to support the policies adopted by a nation or group of nations in peace and war, known as sevkülceyş.”^【1】

Since the 1970s, the term has been used in the social sciences and means directing, guiding, sending, carrying, or pursuing.^【2】 The application of strategy in diverse fields, the extensive body of research conducted on strategy, and its historical roots that have continuously evolved have led to the emergence of numerous definitions of strategy in the literature.

There are differing views on the etymological origins of the word strategy. One view traces it to the Latin “stratum,” meaning “layer,” “line,” or “bed”; another to the Greek “strategia,” meaning “the art or function of a general”; and a third to the Ancient Greek “strategos,” meaning “general.”^【3】 In addition, the widely held view is that the term derives from the combination of the Greek word “stratos,” meaning “army,” and “ago,” meaning “to lead,” thus conveying the meaning of “the art of the generals.”^【4】 Furthermore, the prevalent opinion is that strategy originates from “stratos” and “ago,” forming a term meaning “the art of the generals.”^【5】

The concept of strategy has generally been defined as the use of military means for political objectives.^【6】 However, over time, the appeal of the concept has led it to carve out a place in many fields and, more importantly, to become a concept used for analyzing complex and high-level issues within those fields. In other words, it has evolved from its original military definition as “the art of the general” (strata geos) into a broader, more comprehensive concept, extensively studied beyond the military domain. Just as the concept of security underwent expansion and deepening, so too did the concept of strategy, one of its foundational concepts, share the same fate and gradually became more profound and expansive. The concept of strategy has traditionally been analyzed within the framework of realism, the mainstream theory of international relations. This tendency has been decisive, as realism attributes great importance to the anarchic nature of international relations and the notion that survival within this anarchy is directly proportional to the power one possesses.^【8】

In addition to the general conceptual framework and definition outlined above, other definitions of strategy, particularly those reflecting the perspectives of different fields, can be listed as follows:

• Liddell Hart: The art of distributing and employing military means to achieve political objectives.^【9】 For the purpose of strategy, as opposed to common definitions, is not merely the movement of forces but their effect.
• Murray and Grimsley: A process of continuous adaptation to changing conditions and circumstances in a world dominated by chance, uncertainty, and confusion.^【10】
• Colin S. Gray: “The theory and practice of the use of organized power for political purposes,”^【11】 serving as a bridge between military power and political aims. Strategy is neither military power nor political aim in isolation; rather, it is the use of force or the threat of force to achieve political outcomes.
• Gregory Foster: Ultimately, the effective use of power.^【12】
• Henry Eccles: The comprehensive management of power to control situations and regions for the attainment of objectives.^【13】 This definition is framed in terms of the functions of the state.
• John Baylis and James Wirtz: A pragmatic and practical activity.^【14】 “It is the guide to effectively achieving the objectives that require effort to be accomplished.”^【15】
• General Karl Von Clausewitz: The use of battles for the purpose of war,^【16】 the art of using battles to win a war. The direction and management of war means the organization and deployment of battles.
• Marshal Moltke: The art of finding a solution and the art of applying it under the most difficult conditions. Strategy is “the application in the operational field of the means at a commander’s disposal in a manner that ensures the achievement of the intended objective.”
• Napoleon Bonaparte: Strategy is the art of using time and space.
• Antoine Henri Jomini: Strategy is a war conducted on a map, encompassing the entire area of movement.^【17】 He described it as “the activities between policy, which determines who to fight, and tactics, which determines how to fight.”^【18】

Although these definitions include objectives and means, they have consistently emphasized the use of military means to achieve political aims, while the diversity of objectives has been relegated to a secondary role. André Beaufre, however, defined strategy as “the dialectic between two forces using power to resolve a problem,” or more precisely, “the dialectic between two opposing wills,”^【19】 thereby emphasizing the dialectical nature of strategy both within itself and between two subjects. In short, both theorists and practitioners have revealed their own historical and sociological contexts not only in the study of the concept but also in their definitions.^【20】

Initially rooted primarily in military practice, the importance of strategy has gradually been recognized in other fields as well. Today, strategy is actively used and developed by relevant institutions in nearly every field to achieve their objectives. Consequently, “strategy” has become a widely used concept across numerous domains for both military and civilian purposes.

Some authors define strategy very concisely as “the means used to achieve a specific goal” or “the establishment of balance between objectives and means.”^【21】 USA Joint Publication 1-02 (JP 1-02) defines strategy as “the science and art of employing national resources and forces in a coordinated manner to achieve national and multinational objectives in the theater of war.” Similarly, strategy is also defined as the science and art of preparing, directing, and employing power to achieve a goal or objective.^【22】

Some key characteristics of strategy are as follows.^【23】

• Strategy is a multidimensional, complex, and transitional process.
• Changes affecting one dimension of strategy also affect other dimensions.
• Strategy, in essence, possesses cultural, natural, and functional universal characteristics.
• Strategy is long-term in nature.