Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan

Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan is a strategically significant country located in the Middle East at the heart of the historical Fertile Crescent. Its official name is the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan and its system of government is a constitutional monarchy. The country is governed by the Hashemite family, and the current monarch is King Abdullah II (Abdullah bin Hussein). The King holds decisive authority over both executive and legislative functions.

^{Jordan - Amman City View (}Anadolu Ajansı⁾

Geographically, it borders Syria and Iraq to the north, Saudi Arabia to the south, and Israel and the West Bank to the west. The country consists largely of desert plateaus, the fertile Jordan Valley, and highland regions. Its only maritime access is via the Gulf of Aqaba on the Red Sea in the south.

As of 2023, its population, including regional migrants and refugees, is approximately 11.5 million. The vast majority of the population is of Arab origin, and Arabic is the official language.

The national anthem of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan is titled "As-Salam Al-Malaki" (The Royal Salute). It was officially adopted after the country gained independence in 1946 and stands as one of the most important symbols of the monarchy and national loyalty to the Hashemite dynasty. The lyrics were written by the renowned poet Abdulmunim al-Rifai and the music was composed by Abdul Kader al-Temimi. The anthem exhibits a ceremonial musical structure and, in content, glorifies the unity, independence, and stability of the nation embodied in the person of the King. Additionally, Jordan’s historical role as part of the Arab nation and its involvement in the Arab cause are central themes of the anthem. The national anthem is performed at all official state and military ceremonies as a representation of national identity and sovereignty.

Human presence in Jordanian territory extends back to the Paleolithic era, and the region hosts some of the earliest known evidence of human settlement. One of the most critical archaeological discoveries is the ‘Ain Ghazal Statues, dated to approximately 9,000 years ago. By the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, the region hosted organized kingdoms such as the Ammonites (centered in Amman), Moabites, and Edomites, which sought dominance along the trade routes of the Levant.

The region’s commercial and cultural peak occurred during the Nabataean Civilization, which ruled from the 4th century BCE until 106 CE. The Nabataeans amassed significant economic power by controlling the incense and spice trade between Arabia and the Mediterranean. Their capital, Petra, is renowned for its monumental rock-cut architecture and sophisticated water collection and storage systems, making it a landmark in the history of engineering and architecture. Petra has been on the UNESCO World Heritage List since 1985 and was designated one of the New Seven Wonders of the World in 2007.

In 106 CE, during the reign of the Roman Emperor Trajan, the Nabataean Kingdom was dismantled and its territories annexed as the Roman province of Arabia Petraea. Roman rule enabled the construction of major cities such as Gerasa (Jerash) and facilitated the early spread of Christianity. The region later came under the control of the Byzantine Empire.

In the early 7th century, with the spread of Islam, Jordan became a key area in the struggle against the Byzantines. Although the Bay'at of Aqaba occurred in the Hejaz, it laid the foundation for Islam’s arrival in Medina and the emergence of the region as a political force.

Subsequently, following the Battle of Mu'tah in 629 and the decisive victory at the Battle of Yarmouk in 636, Jordanian territories came entirely under the control of the Islamic State. During the Umayyad period (661–750), Jordan rose to strategic prominence due to its proximity to Damascus; Umayyad rulers commissioned the construction of desert castles such as Qasr Amra and Qasr Kharana.

During the Abbasid era, the region’s political significance declined, but it regained importance during the Crusades, when Crusaders built strategic fortresses such as Krak des Moabites. In the 13th century, Jordan came under the control of the Mamluk Sultanate based in Egypt, serving as a vital link for securing the safety of pilgrimage and trade routes.

Following the campaigns of Sultan Selim I in 1516, Jordanian territories became part of the Ottoman Empire for four centuries. For the Ottomans, the primary priority was ensuring the security of the Hajj route and caravans. A fortress (Aqaba Castle) was constructed to protect these routes. Pilgrims traveling along these routes were always under protection, and their safety was guaranteed. The Ottoman-built fortress is described in detail by Evliya Çelebi, who mentions its towers, ramparts, mosque, bathhouse, gates, and mill.

One of the most important projects of Sultan Abdulhamid II’s reign, the Hejaz Railway is a strategic 1,464-kilometer railway line whose construction began in 1900 by the Ottoman State and reached Medina on 31 August 1908.

Starting from Damascus, the line extended through Daraa, Amman (1903), Ma'an (1904), Qatrana, Tabuk, and Madain Saleh (1906) to Medina. Its primary purpose was to secure the Hajj route, reduce the perilous 40-day pilgrimage journey to four or five days, facilitate religious service, and strengthen administrative and military ties with the Hejaz region to reinforce Ottoman unity.

The project was also intended to symbolize solidarity within the Islamic world and was largely funded by donations from Islamic countries. The railway facilitated the transport of troops and supplies to the Hejaz and Yemen during both peacetime and wartime, reducing reliance on the Suez Canal and enhancing the logistical importance of settlements such as Amman, Ma'an, and Medina. However, due to attacks during the Arab Revolt in World War I, the railway was largely destroyed, and its operation effectively ceased after the war. Today, some sections of the line are preserved as historical heritage in Jordan and Saudi Arabia.

^{Route of the Hejaz Railway and Images from the 1904 Opening Ceremony of Ma'an Railway Station (}Tika⁾

During World War I, the region became the site of the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire. After the Ottoman defeat, the region’s structure was shaped according to the 1916 Sykes-Picot Agreement, which outlined a division of Ottoman territories between Britain and France.

This secret agreement foresaw the partition of Ottoman lands into spheres of influence; modern-day Jordan and Palestine were designated as British zones of influence. Under this framework, the region came under British mandate following the 1920 San Remo Conference decisions. In 1921, one year later, Britain established the Emirate of Transjordan under the leadership of Abdullah bin Hussein, son of the Sharif of Mecca, thereby instituting Hashemite rule and laying the foundations of modern Jordan.

^{Winston Churchill, Arab Lawrence, and Emir Abdullah Walking During the San Remo Conference (}Library of Congress⁾

The emirate remained under British mandate until 1946. On 25 May 1946, with the end of the mandate, the country declared its independence and officially established the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan under King Abdullah bin Hussein. In 1949, the state’s name was formally confirmed as the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan.

Shortly after independence, Jordan participated in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War and annexed the West Bank and East Jerusalem following the conflict. However, these territories were lost to Israeli occupation after the Six-Day War of 1967. These wars significantly affected Jordan’s demographic and political structure, particularly due to waves of Palestinian refugees.

In 1970, clashes between Palestinian guerrilla groups and the Jordanian Army, known as "Black September", strengthened King Hussein’s central authority and consolidated the country’s internal stability and sovereignty.

Following prolonged regional tensions, King Hussein signed a formal peace agreement with Israel in 1994, becoming the second Arab country after Egypt to take this step. Upon King Hussein’s death in 1999, his son King Abdullah II ascended the throne, continuing his father’s balancing policy and prioritizing national goals of modernization, economic reform, and technological advancement.

Jordan has maintained internal stability through its constitutional monarchy and the legitimacy of the Hashemite dynasty, despite major regional instability waves such as the Arab Spring and the civil war in neighboring Syria. Today, the country continues to play a pivotal role in resolving the Palestinian issue and regional security matters.

Jordan is a largely terrestrial and arid country located in Western Asia, covered by the eastern extensions of the Syrian Desert.

Jordan covers an area of approximately 89,342 km² and occupies a geostrategically critical position in the Middle East. It shares borders with Syria to the north, Iraq to the northeast, Saudi Arabia to the east and south, and Israel and the West Bank to the west. The country’s only maritime access is via the Gulf of Aqaba on the Red Sea. This access is vital for its foreign trade.

^{Current Map of Jordan (}AA⁾

Jordan’s western regions are mountainous and rugged. The country’s highest point is Jabal Umm al-Dami, reaching 1,854 meters. The high plateaus around Amman play a decisive role in the country’s climate and agricultural productivity. These mountainous areas block moist air masses from the west, contributing to arid conditions in the eastern regions.

The most fertile part of Jordan’s geography is the Jordan Valley, which stretches from north to south along the Jordan River and is the primary region for agricultural activity. Wadi Rum in the south is a valley known for its sandstone and granite rock formations and is considered geologically and touristically valuable. The region was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2011.

^{Wadi Rum (}Anadolu Ajansı⁾

Jordan’s main water source is the Jordan River, which originates from the slopes of Mount Hermon in the north and flows into the Dead Sea. The Dead Sea lies approximately 430 meters below sea level, making it the lowest point on Earth. Jordan is extremely deficient in water resources; this situation has become a strategic issue for the country.

Jordan exhibits transitional characteristics between Mediterranean and arid desert climates. In western regions, winters are cool and rainy, while summers are hot and dry. In the east and south, annual rainfall is extremely low. The eastern and southern plateaus, which constitute the majority of the country’s territory, are dominated by an arid desert climate with very low annual precipitation.

The Jordan Valley and the Dead Sea region experience a dry tropical climate, with temperatures reaching up to 49°C in summer months. Rainfall is concentrated primarily between November and April. Climatic variations directly affect the country’s agricultural production capacity and settlement distribution.

Jordan’s main natural resources include phosphate, potash, and oil shale. These resources create potential for utilizing domestic and non-renewable energy sources in the country’s energy strategy, but they remain insufficient to meet its energy needs directly.

Jordan is a country with limited natural energy resources and therefore exhibits a high degree of dependence on imports for its energy supply. The country follows an energy consumption model heavily reliant on imports, particularly of oil and natural gas. This dependence is one of the primary factors affecting energy security and economic stability.

Electricity access is widespread in Jordan, with the majority of the population having access to electricity services. As of 2023, the country’s total installed electricity generation capacity stood at 6,890 MW, with the highest recorded electricity load (maximum demand) reported at 4,240 MW. Total electricity generation in 2023 was approximately 24.182 billion kWh (GWh), while consumption reached about 19.113 billion kWh (GWh). Due to generation exceeding consumption, Jordan exports a small amount of electricity, although imports continue.

Generation Mix (2023): Approximately 78.0% of electricity generation comes from fossil fuels (natural gas, oil, and coal), with natural gas alone accounting for 61.7% of total production. Approximately 22.0% of total electricity generation is derived from renewable sources: Solar PV contributes 15.0% and wind energy contributes 6.9%. Hydropower generation is limited to 0.1%. The total installed renewable energy capacity as of 2023 is 2,620 MW.

Jordan exhibits an import-dependent energy structure. There is no domestic coal production; all 120,610 short tons of coal consumed in 2023 were imported. Crude oil production is negligible; total crude oil production in 2023 was reported at only 43,988 barrels (approximately 120 barrels per day). Proven crude oil reserves as of 2021 stood at 1 million barrels. Oil product consumption is high; according to 2023 data, diesel and heating oil consumption alone reached 33,520 barrels per day. Total crude oil imports in 2023 were recorded at 1,776,000 tons.

Natural gas is Jordan’s primary fuel for electricity generation. Domestic natural gas production is limited; in 2023, it increased compared to the previous year and reached 6.13 billion cubic feet (bcf). However, the majority of natural gas consumption is met through imports; in 2023, natural gas imports amounted to approximately 4.037 billion cubic meters. Proven natural gas reserves are estimated at around 200 billion cubic feet (bcf).

Per capita primary energy consumption in 2023 was recorded at 32.91 million Btu. Per capita electricity consumption reached 1,664 kWh in the same year. These figures confirm Jordan’s high energy demand and energy-intensive economic structure despite limited domestic fossil fuel resources.

Jordan’s transportation infrastructure has been shaped around its vision of becoming a regional logistics hub and ensuring uninterrupted foreign trade flows.

• Aqaba Port: Aqaba Port, Jordan’s only access point to the Red Sea, handles more than 90% of the country’s foreign trade. The port serves not only national trade but also functions as a strategic transit and distribution hub for neighboring landlocked countries, particularly Iraq. Continuous modernization and capacity expansion of the port are critical for enhancing regional logistics competitiveness.

^{View of Aqaba Port (}Pexels⁾

• Airways and Airports: Jordan possesses a modern civil aviation infrastructure. The country has a total of 17 airports. Queen Alia International Airport (QAIA) in the capital Amman, with an annual passenger capacity of over 9 million, serves as Jordan’s primary international gateway and regional hub. The national airline, Royal Jordanian, provides an extensive network of regional and international flights, playing a key role in both passenger and air cargo transportation. King Hussein International Airport in Aqaba supports tourism and regional connectivity.

• Road Networks and Connectivity: Jordan’s road network forms the backbone of its logistics system. Major highways and expressways connecting Amman to Aqaba Port and border crossings with Syria, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia are vital for sustaining regional trade and transportation. Maintenance and expansion of this network serve the goal of enhancing commercial integration and accessibility.

• Railways: The railway infrastructure is primarily focused on mineral and freight transport, especially phosphate and potash. The government prioritizes the modernization and capacity expansion of railway networks to promote regional trade, reduce logistics costs, and strengthen regional rail connections.

Jordan’s economy exhibits a middle-income structure based on limited natural resources, dependence on energy imports, and significant reliance on foreign aid. Economic growth is projected at approximately 2.6% for 2025. In the first half of 2025, Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) inflows to the country were recorded at approximately $1.05 billion, representing a significant 36.4% increase compared to the same period in 2024.

• Gross Domestic Product (GDP): GDP was $104.307 billion in 2022 and rose to an estimated $109.986 billion in 2024.

• Per Capita GDP: Per capita GDP increased from $9,300 to $9,500 during the same period, indicating a modest rise in prosperity.

Total exports in 2024 were recorded at $9.433 billion. The largest export partners are the United States (25.7%), Saudi Arabia, and Iraq. The United States alone accounts for one-quarter of Jordan’s total national exports.

The most prominent export category in 2024 was clothing and accessories, which accounted for 19.4% of total exports. Significant growth has been recorded in sectors such as clothing and pharmaceuticals, while traditional export items such as chemical fertilizers, phosphates, and raw potash have shown declining trends.

Jordan’s largest import partners in 2024 include China and Saudi Arabia, as well as the United States and the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Major imported products include mineral fuels and oils, which constitute 21.9% of total imports, along with automobiles, machinery, and electrical equipment.

• The services sector forms the backbone of the economy, accounting for approximately 66% of GDP. Tourism is one of the country’s most important sources of foreign exchange earnings. Education, healthcare, and financial services also constitute strong sub-sectors within services.

• The industrial sector, based on the extraction and processing of rich mineral deposits such as phosphate and potash, accounts for approximately 26% of GDP. Manufacturing industries, particularly textiles and chemicals (including fertilizer production), have developed significantly and attract a substantial portion of foreign investment.

• The agricultural sector contributes approximately 6% to GDP. Due to limited water resources, its share in GDP is low and production is generally oriented toward meeting local consumption needs.

^{Sectoral Distribution of Jordan’s GDP (}DEİK⁾

Due to its dependence on energy and basic raw material imports, Jordan runs a chronic trade deficit. Major export items include textiles/clothing, fertilizers, inorganic chemicals, and potash. Trade flows are oriented toward Western countries and the United States through free trade agreements, as well as neighboring Arab countries.

Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) inflows to Jordan in 2023 were recorded at $843 million. A significant portion of investments is concentrated in industry, construction, and real estate. The government actively encourages investments in green energy and technology.

Jordan’s population is approximately 11.5 million as of 2025. The population growth rate exceeds regional averages, and the country’s demographic structure is highly dynamic, primarily due to large influxes of refugees from neighboring countries.

Jordan is among the world’s leading countries in terms of refugees per capita. This dynamic exerts continuous pressure on public services and economic resources. A high proportion of the population, approximately 84%, lives in urban areas. The capital, Amman, is the country’s largest and most densely populated metropolitan center.

Population distribution is directly linked to geographic conditions. The mountainous plateau in the west and the eastern edge of the Jordan Valley constitute the country’s most densely populated and economically developed region. Cities such as Amman, Irbid, and Zarqa attract population through their roles as centers of industry, education, and services. Eastern and southern regions (the Desert Plateau), however, are largely desert due to harsh climatic conditions and insufficient water resources, resulting in extremely sparse settlement.

Approximately 97% of Jordan’s population is of Arab origin. The remainder consists of small and historic minority groups such as Circassians, Chechens, and Armenians. The most defining factor in the social structure is the Palestinian-origin Jordanians. This population, which arrived after the 1948 and 1967 wars, has become integrated into the country’s social life, economy, and politics, with a significant portion acquiring full citizenship rights.

Islam is the official religion of Jordan, and approximately 93% of the population are Sunni Muslims. Christians constitute about 6% of the population, primarily belonging to the Greek Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Protestant denominations. The Christian community has a long and established history in the region. The Jordanian Constitution guarantees constitutional respect for religious freedom. The state is obligated to protect the rights of religious minorities, and the Christian minority is represented in parliament through a quota system.

Jordan is one of the countries in the Middle East hosting the highest number of refugees due to regional crises. As of 2025, approximately 660,000 Syrian refugees are officially registered in Jordan; when including unregistered individuals, the number is estimated at 1.3 million. According to United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA) data, approximately 2.3 million registered Palestinian refugees live in Jordan. This creates a very high refugee density relative to the population, placing significant pressure on Jordan’s infrastructure, employment, housing, health, and education systems.

According to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and UNESCO, the majority of Syrian refugees do not live in camps but within local communities. This increases demand on public services and strains municipal infrastructure, particularly in energy, water, and waste management. In education, while the Jordanian government collaborates with international organizations to ensure access to education for Syrian and Palestinian children, high class sizes and insufficient resources remain major challenges.

UNESCO country reports emphasize that refugee inflows have created a “continuous and structural pressure” on Jordan’s limited resources, increased competition in the labor market, and led to the proliferation of informal employment in low-wage sectors. Nevertheless, Jordan is regarded by the international community as a significant partner in “burden-sharing.” Overall, the size and long-term presence of the refugee population have become a defining factor in Jordan’s social policies, economic planning, and public service management.

Jordan stands out in the Middle East for its high literacy rate, mandatory basic education system, and advanced higher education infrastructure. The national literacy rate exceeds 95%; the proportion of the population aged 15 and above who are illiterate was approximately 4.8% as of 2025. The education system consists of ten years of mandatory basic education followed by two years of secondary education.

Higher education is central to Jordan’s human capital strategy. Numerous public and private universities operate across the country, with major institutions including University of Jordan, Yarmouk University, and Hashemite University.

^{Yarmouk University} (Yarmouk University)

According to Jordan’s Ministry of Higher Education, as of the 2024–2025 academic year, 51,647 international students from 113 countries are studying in Jordanian universities. This demonstrates Jordan’s emergence as a regional higher education hub. The education infrastructure has particularly developed in engineering, information technology, and medicine.

The quality of education in these fields plays a vital role in meeting the country’s demand for skilled labor. Quality assurance and accreditation processes in higher education are managed by the Jordanian Higher Education Accreditation and Quality Assurance Commission (HEAC).

Jordan maintains its identity as a crossroads of the Levant, blending cultural diversity with historical processes.

Jordanian society is generally built on conservative and collective values. Extended family ties and tribal structures form the foundation of social order and individual identity. Arab cultural norms of hospitality (karam) are a prominent social norm in interpersonal interactions.

Cultural diversity has been enriched by historical waves of migration. A large portion of the population is of Palestinian origin, while minority groups such as Circassians, Chechens, and Christian Arabs contribute to the country’s social fabric.

The official language is Modern Standard Arabic, but local dialects and English are widely used in daily life and commercial settings. Jordanian cuisine reflects typical Levantine characteristics; the most famous national dish is Mansaf, a traditional meal made from dried yogurt (jameed), rice, and meat.

Jordan possesses a vast archaeological heritage due to its historical control by the Roman Empire, Byzantines, and various Islamic Caliphates.

The country’s global cultural significance is recognized through three main UNESCO listings:

• Petra (The Lost City): Renowned for its monumental rock-cut architecture and advanced water engineering, dating back to the 4th century BCE.
• Qasr Amra (Desert Castle): This 8th-century Umayyad structure is notable for its frescoes, which are of great value in early Islamic art.
• Umm ar-Rasas (Kastron Mefaa): This site contains ruins from the Roman, Byzantine, and early Islamic periods and is particularly significant for its well-preserved 6th-century mosaics.

^{Rock Tombs in the Ancient City of Petra, Jordan ()}

Jordan also hosts numerous ancient cities outside the UNESCO framework:

• Jerash (Gerasa): Often called the “Pompeii of the East,” Jerash is one of the best-preserved Roman cities in the world, featuring colonnaded streets, theaters, and temples.
• Amman Citadel (Jabal al-Qal'a): This historic hill in the capital Amman contains Roman temples, Byzantine churches, and Umayyad palace ruins.

Jordan maintains national institutions dedicated to preserving and showcasing its heritage. These institutions play a central role in documenting the country’s thousands of years of history and strengthening national identity.

• Jordan Museum: Located in Amman, this national institution presents the country’s archaeological and cultural evolution chronologically from prehistoric times to the present.
• Jordan Archaeological Museum: Functions as a central repository for significant artifacts recovered from excavations across the country.

Jordan’s tourism sector, built upon the country’s cultural, historical, and natural wealth, is a critical economic pillar for employment and foreign exchange earnings.

Jordan caters to a diverse range of visitors centered on historical, cultural, and health tourism. Its most important attractions are historical and cultural heritage sites such as the Ancient City of Petra and Roman ruins.

At the same time, Jordan has emerged as a global leader in medical tourism, welcoming over 300,000 visitors annually for treatment purposes and creating a significant market. Additionally, visitors drawn to nature and adventure tourism are attracted by Wadi Rum’s desert landscapes and Aqaba’s Red Sea coastlines, while regional tourists from neighboring countries also constitute a significant segment due to geographic proximity.

Tourism is a vital source of foreign exchange and employment for Jordan’s economy and holds a significant position in GDP. For example, before the COVID-19 pandemic, tourism accounted for approximately 16.3% of Jordan’s GDP according to 2019 data.

Although this share declined during the pandemic, recovery has led to increased tourism revenues, reaching $7.239 billion in 2024.

The employment generated by the sector is also critical; in 2024, it provided jobs for a large number of people. Medical tourism, generating over a billion dollars annually, is a strong sub-sector supporting this share.

The Jordanian government implements clear policies under the Economic Modernization Vision to support tourism and enhance global competitiveness. The primary goal is to promote sustainable tourism by preserving cultural heritage and natural resources.

Legal infrastructure is being strengthened; a recent example is the new Tourism Law enacted in 2024, which simplified licensing procedures and established a special fund to support sector development. Additionally, subsidized travel programs such as “Jordan is Paradise” are being implemented to revive domestic tourism, while infrastructure and product development investments continue in key areas such as Aqaba and Wadi Rum.

The tourism sector is one of the main drivers of Jordan’s economy and a crucial source of foreign exchange. It makes a significant contribution to the country’s GDP and is supported by the government as a key sector for national development. Jordan has also emerged as a regional center for medical tourism, particularly due to the unique opportunities offered by the Dead Sea.

Jordan is defined as a tourist destination with various historical structures.

• Ancient City of Petra: The capital of the Nabataean Civilization, Petra is Jordan’s most internationally recognized symbol, famed for its monumental rock-cut architecture dating back to the 4th century BCE. The city has been on the UNESCO World Heritage List since 1985 and is recognized as one of the New Seven Wonders of the World.

• Jerash (Gerasa): Known as the “Pompeii of the East,” Jerash hosts some of the best-preserved large-scale Roman city ruins. Its Arch of Hadrian, Roman Theater, and colonnaded streets make it a major focus of classical historical tourism.

^{Jerash (Gerasa) (}World History Encyclopedia⁾

• Madaba: The city is known for its Byzantine-era churches and the most important examples of mosaic art, particularly the large mosaic map of Jerusalem and the Holy Land. Madaba is also a center for faith tourism.

• Al-Maghtas (Baptism Site of Jesus): Located on the eastern bank of the Jordan River, this sacred site is believed by Christians to be where Jesus was baptized by John the Baptist. Due to this significance, it is a key site for international faith tourism and pilgrimage routes.

• Dead Sea (Lake Lut): The lowest point on Earth, lying approximately 430 meters below sea level, the Dead Sea is a center for health tourism due to its high mineral and salt content, used to treat various ailments, especially skin conditions. It is a global attraction for medical and cosmetic purposes.

• Wadi Rum (Valley of the Moon): A UNESCO World Heritage Site, this desert region is known for its red sands, massive sandstone cliffs, and unique geological formations. The area is a hub for adventure tourism activities such as desert safaris, rock climbing, and ecological camping.

• Aqaba: Jordan’s only port city on the Red Sea and a free trade zone, Aqaba is an active maritime tourism center due to its year-round mild climate, clean beaches, and rich underwater ecosystems ideal for diving and sailing. The city also functions as the country’s logistical and commercial gateway.

Jordan’s foreign policy is based on preserving regime stability, territorial integrity, and regional balance. The Hashemite Kingdom, due to its geographic position, assumes a moderate, mediating, and balancing role amid the Middle East’s unstable power dynamics.

Jordan’s foreign policy axis is built on strategic alliances with the United States and Gulf countries, diplomatic sensitivity regarding the Palestinian issue, and pragmatic relations with neighbors. Amman maintains close cooperation with the Western world in security, economic, and intelligence domains. Jordan also holds a special status as the custodian of Islamic holy sites in Jerusalem, strengthening its diplomatic position on the Palestinian issue.

Jordan is regarded as one of the United States’ most essential and reliable strategic partners in the Middle East. This privileged relationship has deepened based on mutual security interests, the preservation of regional stability, and shared objectives in combating terrorism.

The United States allocates substantial annual economic and military aid to Jordan. This support contributes to Jordan’s economic stability and modernizes the Jordanian Armed Forces. Military assistance includes acquisition of weapons systems, intelligence sharing, and military training programs.

Joint Military Exercises: The two countries conduct comprehensive military exercises such as “Eager Lion” to prepare for regional threats. These exercises aim to enhance the Jordanian military’s interoperability capabilities.

Economic and Trade Relations: The United States and Jordan have strong economic ties. Jordan was the first Arab country to sign a Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with the United States in 2000, which entered into force in 2001 and has increased bilateral trade volume.

^{King Abdullah II of Jordan with U.S. President Donald Trump (}Anadolu Ajansı

Turkish-Jordanian relations are characterized by a friendly framework based on historical, cultural, and economic ties. The two countries maintain close diplomatic relations grounded in shared Ottoman heritage and a vision of regional peace. Turkey was among the first states to recognize Jordan’s independence in 1946.

Relations gained momentum economically with the signing of the Free Trade Agreement in 2009; trade volume has recently approached $1 billion. Turkish construction firms play an active role in Jordan’s infrastructure, energy, and housing projects.

In defense, joint projects are underway between Jordan Design and Development Bureau (JODDB) and Turkish defense industry companies, with technical cooperation on armored vehicles and modernization systems.

Politically, regular high-level consultation mechanisms operate between the two countries, with similar positions on the Palestinian issue, the status of Jerusalem, and regional security. Turkey views Jordan’s stability as strategically important for regional peace; Jordan supports Turkey’s regional diplomatic initiatives.

Jordan became the second Arab state to sign a peace agreement with Israel. The Wadi Araba Peace Treaty, signed on 26 October 1994, defined the borders between the two countries, established diplomatic relations, and regulated water resource sharing.

Although relations between the two countries have experienced tensions at times due to the Palestinian issue and developments in Jerusalem, security and intelligence cooperation continues. Mutual dependence has increased in water and energy supply. Under agreements signed in 2021, Jordan supplies energy to Israel, while Israel provides drinking water to Jordan.

The Amman administration supports the establishment of a Palestinian state and maintains its relations with Israel under a policy of “cooperation in peace but principled distance.” This balance enables Jordan to preserve its alignment with Western allies while maintaining legitimacy in the eyes of the Arab public.

Jordan holds an “Advanced Status Partnership” with the European Union (European Neighbourhood Policy / ENP Advanced Status). The EU provides development aid and humanitarian support to Jordan in managing the refugee crisis. European countries (e.g., Germany, France, United Kingdom) also provide financial and humanitarian assistance to Jordan.

The Jordanian Armed Forces (JAF) consist of land, air, and naval components and are considered among the most professional militaries in the region. The country regularly conducts joint exercises with NATO members, particularly the United States, emphasizing modernization and training programs. The Jordan Design and Development Bureau (JODDB), active in the defense industry, aims to increase domestic production capacity and reduce dependence on imports. Defense projects conducted with Turkey, the United States, and European countries strengthen the technical dimension of Jordan’s security strategy.

• Land Forces: The Jordanian Land Forces possess significant armored strength with 1,458 tanks. This inventory is supported by 16,624 armored vehicles. Artillery power consists of 358 motorized artillery pieces, 80 towed artillery pieces, and 56 multiple rocket launcher systems.

• Air Force: The Jordanian Air Force has a total aircraft inventory of 274, of which approximately 178 are operationally ready. This inventory includes 44 fighter aircraft (29 ready), 6 attack aircraft (4 ready), 13 transport aircraft (8 ready), 66 trainer aircraft (43 ready), and 13 special mission aircraft (8 ready). Additionally, the Air Force operates 155 helicopters (101 ready) and 44 attack helicopters (29 ready).

• Navy: Jordan has access to the sea through a single port, Aqaba, on a 26-kilometer Red Sea coastline. The navy’s capabilities are primarily focused on coastal defense. While Global Firepower does not specify an exact number of vessels, it is confirmed that Jordan possesses offshore patrol vessels. The inventory does not include aircraft carriers, helicopter carriers, destroyers, frigates, corvettes, or submarines.

^{(Jordan Armed Forces and U.S. Officials During Military Cooperation Talks (}Defence Visual Information Distribution Service⁾

In the 2025 military power index, Jordan ranks 75th among 145 countries with a PwrIndx value of 1.6139. The country’s defense budget is set at $2.5 billion, with $25.6 billion in external debt, $15.7 billion in foreign exchange and gold reserves, and $106.8 billion in purchasing power.

Human Resources: Jordan’s total population is 11.17 million, providing a significant potential for military personnel. Active military personnel number 100,500, with reserve personnel at 65,000. Additionally, with 35,000 paramilitary personnel, total military personnel are estimated at 200,500. The country annually mobilizes approximately 145,262 individuals into military service.

The operational history of the Jordanian Armed Forces can be characterized by participation in regional conflicts, internal security operations, and active roles in international peacekeeping missions.

The Jordanian army played a central role in the Arab-Israeli conflicts that began with the establishment of the State of Israel.

• 1948 Arab-Israeli War: The Arab Legion was one of the most effective Arab forces in the war. It achieved notable success in battles around Jerusalem, securing control over East Jerusalem and the West Bank.

• 1967 Six-Day War: In this war, the Jordanian army, having lost most of its air power, was forced to relinquish control of the West Bank and East Jerusalem to Israel and suffered heavy losses.

• 1973 Yom Kippur War: Jordan did not participate directly on the front lines in this war but was affected by the regional conflict.

The army has conducted critical operations to address regional threats and ensure internal order.

• Black September (September 1970): This internal conflict refers to the large-scale operation launched by the Jordanian army against the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) militias. As a result, the PLO was expelled from Jordanian territory, and King Hussein’s authority over the country was reestablished.

• Syria Border Operations: Since the Syrian Civil War, Jordan has combated drug trafficking (particularly khat) and arms smuggling that threaten border security. This includes military interventions such as air strikes and commando operations deep within the Syrian border.

• Regional Interactions: Jordan showed a tendency to support Iraq during the Iran-Iraq War and adopted a policy of neutrality during the 1990–1991 Gulf Crisis.

The Jordanian Armed Forces have consistently contributed to international stability efforts. Since 1961, Jordan has been one of the key countries actively sending troops to United Nations (UN) peacekeeping missions. It has served in various global conflict zones, including former Yugoslavia, Haiti, Congo, Liberia, and East Timor.