Turkish Textile Culture

Turkish Textile Culture is a culture that developed over historical processes across a vast geography extending from Southern Siberia, Central Asia, the Caucasus, Anatolia, and the Balkans. This culture emerged in response to the needs of a nomadic lifestyle and gradually transformed into artistic production forms of settled societies. Turkish textile art encompasses works produced through various techniques such as felt, flat weaving (kilim, cicim, zili, sumak), and pile weaving (carpet), which possess both functional and symbolic qualities. The historical development process began with the earliest examples in Southern Siberia and Central Asia, became institutionalized during the Seljuk and Ottoman periods, and took shape during the Republican era around industrialization and cultural preservation policies.

The foundations of Turkish textile culture lie in the steppe culture and the equestrian nomadic lifestyle of Southern Siberia and Central Asia. In this way of life, animal husbandry was the primary economic activity, and animal fibers such as wool and hair formed the main raw material for producing shelter and utilitarian objects. The tents, known as “yurt” (tent house/white house), which served as the most important shelter for nomadic communities, were constructed using felt and woven materials. The tent culture enabled weaving to develop not merely as an object but as an architectural element.

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The mobility required by nomadic life necessitated lightweight, portable, and durable goods. In this context, felts used for interior decoration and insulation of tents, floor coverings, storage sacks, and animal harnesses constituted the earliest functional examples of textile art. Among Central Asian Turkish communities, felt is the oldest textile surface predating woven fabrics.^【1】 From the Huns onward, tent coverings, floor coverings, and garments found widespread use.

Turkish textile culture consists of major types that vary according to purpose and material structure, spanning from the practical needs of nomadic life to the aesthetic requirements of settled life. These types are fundamental material culture elements reflecting social status, economic structure, and daily life practices.

Considered one of the most important contributions of the Turks to world art history, the carpet has served as a floor covering in both nomadic tents and palaces due to its thick structure providing thermal insulation and its aesthetic value. Historically described as “the luxury of the East,” the carpet was regarded as a symbol of wealth and status, used not only as a floor covering in mosques, palaces, and homes but also hung on walls or employed as furniture covers. Commercially, carpets have been among Anatolia’s most significant export items for centuries and are categorized by use into prayer rugs, floor carpets, cushion covers, and saddle covers.

Lighter, thinner, and more easily foldable and transportable than carpets, flat weave coverings are the most suitable textile group for the mobility demands of nomadic life. In addition to serving as floor coverings, these coverings were produced in a wide variety of functional forms such as sacks (alaçuval, flour sack), heybe, bags, load covers (çul), and cradle covers for transporting and storing belongings during migration. In Anatolia, this group is also generally known as “yaygı”; it is subdivided into kilim, cicim, zili (sili), and sumak according to surface appearance and purpose; coarse weaves such as “palas” are also included in this group.

Fine weaves produced to meet clothing and household textile needs represent one of the aesthetic and technical dimensions of Turkish textile art. These fabrics, typically woven from cotton, silk, or linen threads, were used in making headscarves, undergarments, shirts, and bed sheets. One significant living example of this type is the fine weave known as “dastar,” unique to the village of Yeşil Üzümlü in Fethiye, Muğla, adorned with original motifs.^【3】 These weaves, historically produced from silk and cotton blends and currently continuing with cotton as the dominant material, form part of the cultural identity of the local population.

Felt, which does not involve a warp-weft system but is one of the oldest and most traditional products of Turkish textile art, is the foundational building material of the “tent” (yurt/topak ev) tradition brought from Central Asia to Anatolia. Due to its insulating properties against heat and moisture, it met the shelter needs of nomads and was also used to make symbolic and functional garments such as the “kepenek” worn by shepherds, horse saddle covers, and the “sikke” worn by Mevlevi dervishes. Although its use diminished with the transition to settled life, felt continues to exist as a tourist and artistic object.

These weaves, produced in long, narrow strips, serve as complementary elements in daily life through their carrying and fastening functions. Known as “çarpana” and “kolan,” these strips are used in animal harnesses, securing loads (örken), carrying babies on the back, cradle bindings, and as belts or sashes in traditional clothing. Particularly among Yörük and Turkmen communities, ornamental and motif-decorated narrow weaves carry symbolic meanings in rituals such as weddings and funerals.

In Turkish textile culture, carpets and flat weaves were used not only as floor coverings but also on vertical surfaces for thermal insulation and aesthetic decoration. In early examples from Central Asia, carpets were used not only on the ground but also as wooden panel, saddle, and wall coverings. In Anatolian village life, due to the weight of pile carpets, lighter flat weaves such as kilims and other flat weave types were preferred for vertical uses such as wall decorations, heavy curtains, and door covers. In the late Ottoman period, this tradition acquired a new dimension in palace decoration; wall carpets with special dimensions and patterns were produced at the Hereke Factory for the decoration of Dolmabahçe and Yıldız Palaces, becoming part of interior design. Exported Turkish carpets gained prestige as tablecloths and wall carpets in Western palaces and churches, rather than as floor coverings.

The oldest and most sophisticated known example of knotted carpet technique is the “Pazyryk Carpet,” discovered in the 1940s in the Pazyryk Kurgan (3rd–5th century BCE) in the Altai Mountains (Southern Siberia). This artifact, approximately 2,300–2,500 years old, features a structure similar to the double knot (symmetric/Turkish) technique used in modern hand-knotted carpets.^【4】 The equestrian figures, deer motifs, and compositional arrangement in the Pazyryk carpet reflect the iconographic characteristics of Central Asian steppe art. This find constitutes concrete archaeological evidence that knotted carpet technique had reached a high level of technical proficiency during the Hun period.

The mass migration of Turks into Anatolia from the 11th century onward facilitated the transfer of textile techniques and motif languages originating in Central Asia and Southern Siberia. After the 1071 Battle of Manzikert, the Turkmen tribes who settled in Anatolia continued their weaving looms and production practices in this region. During the Anatolian Seljuk period (13th century), centers such as Konya, Aksaray, and Sivas emerged as major carpet production cities.

The traveler Marco Polo noted in his travelogue that during his passage through Anatolia in the 13th century, the most beautiful carpets in the world were woven in Konya. Similarly, travelers such as Ibn Said and Ibn Battuta commented on the quality of Turkmen carpets and their export to countries such as Egypt, Syria, Iraq, and India.^【5】 Anatolian Seljuk carpets are generally characterized by geometric ground patterns, Kufic borders, and large motifs.

During the Ottoman Empire, textile art developed along two main lines: court-sponsored workshops and rural production. The 15th and 16th centuries are regarded as the classical period of Turkish carpet art. Carpets produced in centers such as Uşak, Bergama, and Konya during this period began to be exported to European markets and were depicted in Western painting.^【6】

From the 19th century onward, under the influence of the Industrial Revolution and demands from Western merchants, workshops producing carpets for export with standardized patterns and colors were established in Western Anatolia (particularly Uşak, Gördes, Kula) under the supervision of British and other European companies (e.g., Şark Halı Kumpanyası). This process led to partial changes in traditional motifs and natural dyeing techniques while increasing production volume. Additionally, in 1843, the Hereke Factory (Hereke Weaving Factory) was established to meet court needs and develop silk weaves; carpets produced there acquired a universally privileged status.

With the proclamation of the Republic of Türkiye, the preservation and development of traditional arts became state policy. Institutions such as Sümerbank supported carpet production in centers like Isparta and Hereke, providing local producers with yarn and pattern support. From the 1960s onward, industrialization and the proliferation of machine-made carpets affected hand-weaving; however, traditional production continued in rural areas and within cultural projects (e.g., the DOBAG Project).^【7】 Today, Turkish textile culture persists both as a historical heritage preserved in museum collections and as a living tradition with tourist and commercial value.

In Turkish textile culture, animal husbandry, a natural consequence of the nomadic lifestyle, forms the basis of production. The most important factor determining the technical structure, durability, and aesthetic quality of textiles is the type and processing method of the raw material. In traditional production, natural fibers such as wool, hair, silk, and cotton are spun into yarn using regional methods and then dyed with natural dyes before being prepared for weaving.

The most commonly used raw material in Anatolian weaving is sheep wool. Wool became the primary material for carpets, kilims, and flat weaves due to its porous structure, thermal insulation properties, dye absorption capacity, and flexibility. The quality of wool varies depending on the season of shearing. Wool sheared in spring is called “yapağı,” while wool sheared in autumn is called “güz yünü.” Since animals graze and clean themselves naturally during summer, autumn wool has a brighter, cleaner, and softer structure compared to spring wool. Therefore, autumn wool is preferred especially in the weft threads of fine kilims.

Goat hair is a fiber type with high durability and is used in durable textiles such as tents (kara çadır/yurt), sacks, and heybes due to its moisture retention and pest-repellent properties. Artisans who spin yarn from goat hair are called “mazman,” and those who weave with this yarn are called “mutaf.”^【8】

Silk is a costly and labor-intensive material used mainly in palace carpets and specialized production centers such as Hereke. The fineness of silk fibers allows for an increased number of knots per square centimeter and the execution of detailed patterns. Cotton is generally used as warp thread, particularly in fine weaves such as Antep kilims or to provide durability in the ground structure of Hereke carpets.

The textile preparation process begins with shearing animals. The raw wool or hair is washed in rivers to remove dirt and grease. After washing, the fibers are dried and combed to align them parallel.

Spinning the fibers into yarn is traditionally carried out using simple hand tools called “kirman” (needle) or “çıkrık.” The twist direction and tightness of the yarn are adjusted according to its intended use (weft, warp, or pile). Warp threads, which must withstand tension, are prepared with high twist and usually as double-ply, while weft and pattern threads are left with looser twists to cover the surface. From the late 19th century onward, the establishment of yarn factories with industrialization initiated the transition from hand-spun yarn to factory-produced yarn.^【9】

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In Turkish textile art, colors were obtained from natural dyes derived from plant, animal, and mineral sources. Until the end of the 19th century, natural dyeing was the sole method of coloring, and it remains the key factor enabling textiles to survive without fading until today.

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Mordanting: Metal salts known as “mordants” are used to chemically bind natural dyes to fibers and enhance resistance to washing and light. The most commonly used mordants in traditional Turkish dyeing are alum (potassium aluminum sulfate), verdigris (copper sulfate), iron sulfate (black dye), and cream of tartar (tartaric acid). The mordanting process is typically performed before dyeing by boiling the yarn in mordant solution (pre-mordanting).

With the introduction of synthetic dyes (aniline and alizarin) into the Ottoman market from the second half of the 19th century, traditional dyeing techniques declined, and changes in color quality were observed. However, starting in the 1980s, projects such as DOBAG (Natural Dye Research and Development) sought to revive traditional dyeing methods.

In Turkish textile culture, the production process is carried out using different technical equipment depending on the type of product (carpet, kilim, fabric), the raw material used, and the social environment (settled or nomadic). The looms that provide tension and open the shed, along with auxiliary tools for knotting, compacting, and cutting, form the technical infrastructure of production.

Weaving looms are devices that maintain the tension of warp threads and allow the passage of weft threads. In the weaving traditions of Anatolia and Central Asia, two main types are used: vertical (ıstar) and horizontal (ground loom).^【10】

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Various hand tools are used during weaving to compact knots, cut threads, and smooth the surface.

• Kirkit: A comb-like striking tool, typically made of iron or hard wood, used to compact inserted knots or weft threads in carpets and flat weaves. In Turkmen weaving, the teeth of kirkits are made of iron and the handle of hard wood; sometimes rings are attached to produce sound.^【11】 The weight and tooth structure of the kirkit directly affect the quality and density of the weave.

• Mekik: A boat-shaped tool, typically made of wood, used to pass the weft or pattern thread through the warp threads (shed). Spools of thread are placed inside. It is a fundamental tool in fabric weaving such as dastar and in flat weaves requiring mass production such as Antep kilims.

• Knife and Scissors: In carpet weaving, special knives with hooked blades (keser) are used to cut excess thread after knotting. After weaving is completed, a special carpet shear (sındı) is used to trim the pile and achieve the desired height.

• Other Tools: To prevent narrowing of the weave width and ensure edge regularity, “çımbar” devices—metal or wooden tensioners with pointed ends—are used. Additionally, components such as the “gücü ağacı” (power tree) that form the tension system and the “varangelen” that prevent warp threads from tangling play important roles in loom operation.

Turkish textile culture is technically classified according to how threads intersect or interlock. These techniques are examined under three main categories based on whether pile (hav) is created, the number of weft and warp systems, and the mechanism of surface formation:

• Pile weaves (carpets),
• Flat weaves (kilim, cicim, zili, sumak)
• Non-woven surfaces (felt).

Additionally, narrow weaves (çarpana/kolan) specialized by use constitute an important part of this technical classification.

A carpet is a weave in which knots are tied onto warp threads to create a pile (tuft) surface, and a weft thread is passed and compacted after each row. The knot, the fundamental structural element of the carpet, is referred to by various names, and academic debates exist regarding these terminologies.

• Symmetric Knot (Turkish / Gördes / Double Knot): In this technique, the pile thread is wrapped around two warp threads so that both ends rise upward from the center. Although commonly referred to in literature as the “Turkish knot” or “Gördes knot,” it has been determined that the term “Gördes” is based on a mistaken association with the Gordian knot legend and does not correspond to geographic or historical reality.^【12】 Structurally exhibiting symmetry, it is more accurately defined in academic literature as the “symmetric knot” or “double knot” due to its wrapping around two warp threads. This knot is used in the majority of Anatolian carpets and is also found in some regions of Iran and the Caucasus.

• Asymmetric Knot (Iranian / Sine / Single Knot): This knot is formed by wrapping the pile thread around one warp thread and passing it behind the other before releasing it. Due to its non-symmetrical appearance, it is termed the “asymmetric knot.” Although frequently referred to in literature as the “Iranian knot” or “Sine knot,” it has been determined that the Sine (Sanandaj) region predominantly uses the symmetric knot, indicating that the term “Sine” is inaccurate.^【13】 This knot technique allows for more frequent weaving and the execution of detailed patterns.

Flat weaves, which create non-pile (tuftless) surfaces, are subdivided into subgroups according to the intersection pattern of weft and warp systems and the technique of motif formation:

• Kilim: A technique woven with two thread systems—warp and weft—where the weft completely covers the warp (weft-faced). Motifs are created by returning differently colored weft threads within their own motif boundaries. This process creates vertical gaps (ilik) between motifs, hence the term “ilikli dokuma” (slit weave).

• Cicim: A three-thread weave that adds a third “decoration weft” (pattern thread) to the ground warp and weft. The decoration thread passes over the warp threads (e.g., three over, three under), creating a raised surface appearance resembling needlework.

• Zili (Sili): A three-thread weave in which the decoration thread passes over the warp threads (typically three over, one under), covering the entire surface and creating a wick-like appearance. Originating in Central Asia and the Caucasus, this technique is known as “sili” or “zili” and is commonly preferred in durable textiles such as çul and heybe.

• Sumak: A technique in which the decoration thread is wrapped around pairs of warp threads, creating a fishbone or chain-like appearance. The weft thread, by wrapping around the warp threads, forms a raised and sturdy surface. Variants include flat sumak and fishbone sumak.

Felt is a non-woven surface obtained by felting wool fibers together under pressure, moisture, and heat without using a weft-warp system. This technique, based on the principle of the surface scales (cuticles) of wool fibers opening and interlocking, was extensively used by Central Asian nomads for tent covers (yurt), floor coverings, and kepeneks. In Anatolia, this method known as “tepme keçe” has a very ancient history, as evidenced by examples found in the Pazyryk kurgans.

These are strip-shaped weaves typically produced in widths ranging from 0.5 cm to 50 cm. They are used for carrying loads, animal harnesses, belts, and decoration.

• Çarpana Weaving: A technique using square or polygonal boards with perforated corners (cards). Warp threads are passed through these holes, and the cards are rotated around their axis to create the shed. This technique produces warp-faced and highly durable strips. This technique, dating back to 3000 BCE, is still practiced by Yörük and Turkmen groups in Anatolia.^【14】

• Kolan Weaving: Although often confused with “çarpana,” it differs technically. In kolan weaving, power rods or simple devices are used to create the shed. These warp-faced weaves are widely preferred for making “örken” (urgan/ip), securing loads, and cradle bindings due to their durability.

In Turkish textile culture, the surface composition of weaves is structured according to specific geometric and symbolic patterns. These patterns are shaped according to the region of production, the intended use (covering, prayer rug, cushion, etc.), and the weaver’s technical preferences. When examining Anatolian weaving examples (e.g., Mut, Silifke, Yahyalı, Döşemealtı), six fundamental patterns emerge in terms of surface division and motif placement: hexagonal, central-bulb, baklava, mihrap, box, and horizontal-banded patterns.^【15】

In this composition, the weave surface is divided into equal-sized hexagonal forms. Lines connecting the hexagons are formed as single, double, or triple rows depending on the size of the weave. The interiors of the hexagons are filled with motifs of varying colors and sizes from the regional repertoire. In Mut and Silifke zili weaves, motifs are generally arranged in horizontal bands at a 45-degree angle, covering the entire surface.

The central-bulb pattern is based on placing one or more primary motifs, called “top” or “göbek,” at the center of the weave surface. Variations of this pattern include:

• Single and Multiple Bulbs: Depending on the size of the weave, a single large bulb may be placed at the center, or two or three bulbs may be arranged vertically.

• Toplu Carpet: In examples called “toplu halı” in Döşemealtı and Kocaaliler regions, two or three large cross-shaped motifs are arranged vertically on the ground.

• Corner Bulb: Common in Yahyalı carpets, this arrangement includes quarter bulbs or corner fillings alongside the central main bulb.

In this pattern, the weave surface is covered by a network formed by repeating diamond-shaped (rhombus) forms. The size of the diamonds and the thickness of their frames are adjusted according to the size of the weave. The interiors of the diamonds are decorated with different colors and motifs following principles of contrast and rhythm. Examples of this pattern are found in Mut and Silifke zili weaves.

This is the fundamental pattern found in weaves used for worship, such as prayer rugs (seccade). The composition is created by stylizing the architectural element of the mihrab.

• Single and Double Mihrap: Typically contains a single arched form (mihrab). Camili (mihraplı) designs are common in Döşemealtı carpets.
• Ladik Type: Compositions with stacked mihraps are also observed.
• Ground Pattern: The interior of the mihrab is sometimes left empty or filled with motifs such as lamps, ewers, or the Tree of Life. Corner spaces (koltuk) are differentiated from the ground using different colors and motifs.

A characteristic surface division unique to Yahyalı carpets. The surface composition of Yahyalı carpets is arranged from outside to inside as: outer sedef, border, inner sedef, box, and inner ground (bulb). The box section consists of rectangular panels located between the inner sedef and the inner ground (bulb). In regional tradition, the use of this pattern is associated with social status; the “box” section appears in carpets woven by married and engaged women but is absent in those woven by unmarried or widowed women.

This pattern divides the ground into horizontal (crosswise) bands. Known regionally as “taktalı,” “tahtalı,” or “çubuklu,” this composition allows the bands to be filled with motifs or left as simple color strips. This pattern is one of the arrangements where the principles of rhythm and repetition are most clearly evident.

In Turkish textile culture, motifs are not merely decorative elements; they constitute a silent language expressing the weaver’s inner world, beliefs, expectations, and social status. This language is integrated into various rituals shaped by life-cycle transitions from birth to death and protective instincts.

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The production process of carpets and flat weaves is surrounded by specific rituals from beginning to end, beyond being a mere technical act. These rituals aim to ensure prosperity, rapid completion, and protection from the evil eye.

• Beginning Rituals: In Kayseri Bünyan, it is customary to burn henna on the weaver’s hands before starting to prevent hand injuries. This practice is also associated with the belief in “Fatma Ana.” While beginning work, prayers are recited: “May my hand be swift like a bird, my place firm like stone, and this task be completed in three days,” invoking speed and steadfastness. Additionally, it is a common practice to have a fast-moving child run to bring the first knot, to ensure rapid progress.

• Protective Practices: To prevent the evil eye from affecting the loom, objects such as nazar boncuğu (evil eye bead), ığde branch, şap (alum), or üzüm yaprağı are hung in visible places on the loom.

• Completion Celebrations: When a carpet is completed and cut from the loom, a special celebration is held. For a dowry carpet, the bride’s mother-in-law cuts it while bringing sweets. It is a common tradition to offer a tip and recite blessings such as “Allah satı bahası versin” (May God grant its value).

Textile products assume functional and symbolic roles during key life transitions.

• Birth and Childhood: In the Çanakkale Ayvacık region, textiles known as “urba yastığı” are produced for storing clean garments and for use as pillows. Additionally, special “kolan” weaves made for carrying children on the back are an important textile type that facilitates mothers’ daily lives. In Turkmen carpets, religious motifs are often found in carpets specifically woven for children.

• Wedding and Dowry: In Turkish culture, weaving is the most fundamental element of the dowry. The saying “Halısı yok, zilisi yok” expresses the absence of dowry. Young girls tie their own hair strands between the knots of the carpets they weave, wishing to remain permanently in their new home and to find happiness. The “hair knot” motif symbolizes the desire for marriage. In Ayvacık Güzelköy, it is a tradition to tie special woven sashes (kolan) around the bride’s waist instead of red ribbons, accompanied by prayers (salavat).

• Death and Funeral: Textiles also play a decisive role in funeral rites. In Güzelköy, a special textile called “meydan kilimi” is used only during the transportation of the deceased to the cemetery and is returned after burial.^【16】 To secure the corpse on this carpet, “örken” kolan weaves are used. Additionally, laments sung upon hearing of a death while sitting at the loom demonstrate the integration of oral culture with weaving.

The act of weaving also serves as a means of making wishes and fulfilling vows. In Bünyan, young girls believe that if a plant called “kader çiçeği” remains alive when hung on their loom, their wishes will be granted. Additionally, “adak halıları” (votive carpets), typically mihrap-shaped prayer rugs, are woven to be donated to mosques; it is noted that during their weaving, each knot is accompanied by a prayer, and the carpet functions as a rosary.

In Türkiye, textile culture is divided into various regional schools exhibiting distinct characteristics based on geographic conditions, ethnic origins (Yörük, Turkmen tribes), local raw material sources, and lifestyles. These schools developed along two main lines: “court/workshop” and “rural/home” production, and are distinguished by their techniques, materials, color palettes, and motif repertoires.

The most important school representing the “palace carpet” tradition of Turkish carpet art. Established in 1843, the Hereke Weaving Factory began production to meet the Ottoman court’s needs for floor coverings, curtains, and carpets. Hereke carpets hold a privileged position in world literature due to their material quality (silk and wool) and knot density.

Their design features compositions of floral, medallion, and curvilinear motifs designed in court nakkaşhane workshops. From the 19th century onward, they won awards at international fairs (Lyon, Chicago, Munich) and were used as diplomatic gifts in Western palaces (e.g., White House, Peace Palace, Huis Doorn). During the Republican era, Hereke continued production under Sümerbank and became a global brand in silk carpet production from the 1960s onward; its designs were copied in other regions of Anatolia (Tokat, Kayseri, etc.) as “Hereke type.”

One of the most important commercial production centers of Turkish carpet art during the Republican era. This school developed significantly in the late 19th century under the organization of British companies (Şark Halı Kumpanyası) and dominated Türkiye’s carpet exports and domestic consumption from the 1950s to the 1980s.

Isparta carpets are typically woven with wool pile on a cotton warp using the “Gördes” (symmetric) knot technique. Their design characteristics consist of botanical ornaments, medallions, and angular compositions shaped according to Western consumer tastes (Smyrna type). The first standardization and quality control efforts in Turkish carpet weaving were initiated in 1955 with Isparta as the center.

Demirci, one of the historically significant centers of Western Anatolian carpet weaving, along with Gördes and Kula, is known for its intensive use of the symmetric knot technique known in literature as “Gördes knot.” In the 19th century, under the influence of British companies, its design and color characteristics were shaped according to the European market.

Demirci carpets are particularly recognized as a school specialized in mosque carpets (saf seccade). They were featured among Turkish carpet products at international exhibitions such as the 1897 Stockholm Exhibition. During the Republican era, Demirci was among the first centers to witness early local initiatives in the transition from hand-weaving to mechanization.

The Sarıkeçili Yörük, one of the communities that maintained the nomadic lifestyle the longest, shaped their textile culture around animal husbandry and migration needs. In this school concentrated in Karaman and its surroundings, a large portion of production consists of sack-type textiles used for transporting and protecting belongings during migration. Sarıkeçili weaves typically use goat hair and sheep wool obtained from their own herds. Goat hair is preferred for its ease of cleaning and thermal insulation properties.

Weaves are generally classified as “ala çuval” (for storing dowry and clothing), “un çuvalı” (for grain), and “kıl çuval” (for storing utensils). Technically, kilim, cicim, and sumak techniques are widespread; ground weaves are typically made of hair, while motifs are woven with root-dyed wool threads. The motif repertoire prominently features geometric forms such as pıtrak, ram’s horn, abundance, hook, waterway, and checkerboard.

This school, developed in the Yahyalı district and surrounding areas of Kayseri, is known for its distinctive surface pattern and color sensibility. Yahyalı carpets differ from Bünyan carpets by being smaller in size (prayer rug type) and dominated by geometric designs. Their most distinctive feature is the surface composition arranged from outside to inside as: outer sedef, border, inner sedef, box, and inner ground (bulb). The “box” section is a characteristic element unique to Yahyalı carpets; in regional tradition, it appears in carpets woven by married and engaged women but is absent in those woven by unmarried or widowed women. The color palette is dominated by dark and bright tones: navy blue, burgundy (apple red), dark brown, and dark green are frequently used.

This school, developed by the Karakoyunlu Yörük communities on the Döşemealtı plateau and surrounding areas (Burdur–Kocaaliler, etc.), is known for its unique “Döşemealtı” carpets. These carpets are typically prayer rug size and feature a palette dominated by red, blue, burgundy, green, and black.

Döşemealtı carpets are named according to their ground composition and motifs: halelli, toplu, akrepli, kocasulu, and camili. In halelli carpets, the ground is filled with geometric motifs; in toplu carpets, large cross-shaped (top) motifs are arranged on the ground. The scorpion motif used in akrepli carpets is rendered as a protective talisman against external threats.

The Tahtacı Turkmen communities living in Güzelköy and surrounding areas of Ayvacık, Çanakkale, have created a unique school through their distinctive narrow weaving techniques of “çarpana” and “kolan.” In this region, kolan weaves are used for functional purposes such as carrying firewood, animal harnesses, and child transportation.

One of the most remarkable products of the Ayvacık school is the “Meydan Kilimi,” used in funeral rites, and the special “Örken” kolan used to bind the corpse. Additionally, the “Urba Yastığı,” a lidded textile for storing clean garments, is unique to the region. Motifs include local names such as “İstanbul sokağı,” “su yolu,” and “dişeme.”

In the village of Yeşil Üzümlü, Fethiye, dastar fabrics woven on pedal looms called “düven” or “düzen” are the region’s most important textile product.^【17】 Dastar is a fine, translucent fabric woven with warp and weft threads and a third thread (side thread) for creating patterns.

Traditionally woven from cotton and silk blends, today dastars prefer flexible cotton yarn. Motifs are typically geometric and named after poppy, stick, leech, camel foot, and snake.

In the districts of Mut and Silifke in Mersin, flat weave coverings (kilim, cicim, zili) are common, produced in accordance with the Yörük lifestyle. Various surface patterns, including hexagonal, central-bulb, baklava, and horizontal-banded, have been identified in these weaves. Warp threads are typically made of hair, while weft threads are made of wool. Regional motifs include yar yare küstü, ram’s horn, box, and curved waterway designs.

In Turkish textile culture, preserving woven items (carpets, kilims, fabrics, etc.) for long periods without deterioration and protecting them from harmful agents has become a cultural practice as important as production itself. These practices encompass both physical protection methods (trunks, bundles) and traditional measures against biological pests (moths, insects).

The greatest enemy of textiles made from natural fibers (wool, silk, hair) is moth larvae and other insects. In traditional Turkish homes, non-chemical, natural protectants were used against these pests.

• Plant-Based Protectors: Fragrant plant and natural substances such as lavender flowers, bay leaves, walnut leaves, tobacco leaves, quince leaves, soap, naphthalene, and black pepper were placed between textiles or inside storage trunks to repel moths. Lavender and soap were particularly favored for their pleasant scent and insect-repellent properties.

• Ventilation and Sunning: Regularly removing textiles from trunks or storage racks to air and sun them was a fundamental method to prevent moth infestation. Sunlight and clean air reduce moisture, limiting insect habitats.

• Washing and Cleaning: Since dirt attracts insects, care was taken to clean textiles before storage. Traditional cleaning methods used natural soaps and plant-based cleaners (e.g., çöven herb water).

The storage of valuable textiles (dowry items, special garments, embroidered coverings) is integrated into a tradition known as trunk culture. The trunk is not merely a storage tool but a symbolic object preserving the family’s memory and material heritage.

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• Trunks: Trunks, typically made from fragrant and durable woods such as walnut, cedar, or fir, protect contents from moisture and insects. Particularly dowry trunks served as the repository for the most valuable textile items (dastar, embroidered yazma, kese, bundle, etc.) woven by young women or inherited from family elders. The interior of trunks was sometimes lined with special fabrics to prevent direct contact between textiles and wood.

• Bundling: It is a common practice to wrap textiles in a clean cloth or a specially woven “bohça” before placing them in trunks. The bohça protects the textile from dust, light, and abrasion while enabling orderly stacking. Bohças themselves are often elaborately woven textiles.

• Urba Yastığı: The “urba yastığı” (garment pillow), identified in the Ayvacık Güzelköy region, is a protective method developed for storing clean garments and valuable textiles. This bag-shaped textile, into which folded garments are placed, protects them from dirt and, due to its plump structure, can also be used as a pillow at night, giving it a functional form.

• Storage Rack System: Bedding, quilts, and coverings not in daily use are systematically stacked in wooden cabinets (yüklük) along a wall, preserving their shape. Embroidered curtains or kilims hung in front of yüklük provide both decorative appeal and protection from dust.

Repairing valuable textiles damaged over time is part of the protection culture. Especially for public-use items such as mosque and foundation carpets, and family heirloom carpets, maintenance and repair were traditionally carried out. Torn or detached sections were restored using matching yarn and colors through weaving or patching (as seen in Sarıkeçili sacks), extending the textile’s lifespan. Additionally, the restoration of Turkish carpets used in the British Royal Palaces (Buckingham Palace) is currently carried out at the Aksaray Sultanhanı, demonstrating the international expertise of Turkish textile repair traditions.^【18】

Turkish textile culture, beyond being merely a commercial commodity or utilitarian object, has functioned as an instrument of diplomacy, a symbol of status, and a central element of artistic interaction. Particularly in relations with the Western world, carpets and textiles were accepted as tangible manifestations of political and cultural diplomacy.

Turkish carpets began to be frequently depicted in European painting art from the 14th century onward, and these depictions have become important documents for dating carpets and determining their origins. Renaissance and Baroque painters rendered Turkish carpets in their works with detailed realism. These carpets are often named after the painters who depicted them:

• Holbein Carpets: Carpets with geometric patterns and Kufic borders seen in the paintings of Hans Holbein.

• Lotto Carpets: Carpets depicted in Lorenzo Lotto’s works, typically with yellow grounds and red arabesque motifs.

• Memling Carpets: Carpets appearing in the paintings of Hans Memling, featuring octagonal rose motifs.

Turkish carpets were among the most valuable gifts presented by Ottoman sultans and state officials to Western monarchs and diplomats.

• Gift-Giving: In 1464, Fatih Sultan Mehmed gifted 100 carpets to King Ferdinand of Naples.^【19】 Similarly, Sultan Abdülhamid II, in 1884, gifted carpets from the Yıldız Palace collection to U.S. Senator Abram Hewitt to strengthen the Ottoman Empire’s standing in the West.

• Palace Inventories: Of the 801 carpets in the inventory of King Henry VIII of England, 444 were Turkish carpets.^【20】 Turkish carpets were used in throne rooms of centers such as Kensington Palace and Wawel Castle (Poland).

• Peace Palace (The Hague): The enormous carpets and curtains specially woven at the Hereke Factory for the Consul’s Hall of the Peace Palace, which hosts the International Court of Justice in The Hague, Netherlands, represent a significant example of late Ottoman diplomacy reflecting its cultural heritage.

Turkish textile culture exhibits strong ties with Azerbaijan and the Caucasus in terms of technique and terminology. Flat weave techniques such as zili (Sili) and sumak are produced in both regions using identical techniques and similar nomenclature (in Azerbaijan: Zili, Sumak, or Şedde). Additionally, textile types such as palas and cecim display similar technical and design features in both Anatolia and Azerbaijan (Karabakh school). This demonstrates that textile culture constitutes a shared Turkish cultural heritage transcending political boundaries.