This article was automatically translated from the original Turkish version.
Jan Schmidt was born in 1951 in Arnhem, Netherlands. He studied at the University of Leiden in the Department of History, Middle East Languages and Cultures from 1969 to 1985 and continued his academic work at the same institution. In 1992, he completed his doctorate at Leiden University with a fresh perspective on Gelibolulu Mustafa Âli’s 1590 work Künhü’l-Ahbar, a text of central importance in Turkish literature. While continuing his research in the Netherlands, he worked as a duration teacher before moving to England, where he taught Turkish and Ottoman Studies at the University of Manchester. He later returned to Leiden to focus on Ottoman linguistics, history and literature. He compiled the catalogue of Turkish manuscripts held in the Leiden University Library, a work that enhanced his recognition among academic circles in Türkiye. His publications cover a broad spectrum and span the 16th to the 20th centuries. His research primarily focuses on the political and cultural relations between Europe and the Ottoman Empire.
Dutch Ship in Ottoman Waters (Generated by Artificial Intelligence)
He has also authored various works related to this research. Schmidt, who has studied the interactions between the Netherlands’ East Indian colonies and the Ottoman Empire, completed the works From Anatolia to Indonesia: Opium Trade and the Dutch Community of Izmir, 1820-1940 and Through the Legation Window 1876-1926: Four Essays on Dutch, Dutch-Indian and Ottoman History. In both works, he approaches the subjects from multiple angles. While social, cultural and political perspectives dominate, particularly in his study of afyon trade, economics and trade play a significant place. Within this work framework, these two work will be examined to provide a short evaluation of Jan Schmidt and his works.
First, the work Through the Legation Window 1876-1926: Four Essays on Dutch, Dutch-Indian and Ottoman History will be analyzed. As the title suggests, the book consists of four essays on Dutch history, the Netherlands’ Southeast Asia colonies and Ottoman history. The essays are as follows:
Although each essay addresses specific topics, when viewed as a whole, the book presents a comprehensive picture of Ottoman-Dutch relations and Dutch colonial activities in Near Era. Through case studies on social, economic and political issues, it is possible to gain a nuanced understanding of Ottoman-Dutch relations and the context of Dutch colonies. A detailed examination of each essay can now begin in sequence.
The first essay in Schmidt’s work, Banditry and the Dutch Colony in the Vilayet of Aydın, examines Ottoman society’s reactions to Europeans. The essay details numerous incidents in which European merchants and colonists living on Ottoman territory were kidnapped. Using multiple examples, it explores how these kidnappings were carried out and their consequences, such as ransom payments.
The perpetrators of these kidnappings were not only Turks; Bulgarian committee members also played an active role in such incidents. Schmidt analyzes in this essay the local resistance dynamics within Ottoman society and the motivations behind these violent acts against Europeans. The kidnapping of Europeans provides an important perspective for understanding Ottoman-European relations during the period and the social unrest in the Aydın vilayet. It can be argued that the primary motivation behind these acts was a reaction to the economic and political influence exerted by European imperialists and their supporters.
Another focus of the essay is the Dutch colony in İzmir. Like other European powers pursuing imperialist aims, the Dutch established colonies to expand their trade networks and strengthen their influence at key strategic points. The Dutch chose İzmir, known as the gateway from Anatolia to Europe, as their base in Ottoman territory. Their initial settlement in the region dates back to 1612. In summary, the essay centers on Dutch activities in the region and incidents of robbery and violence.
The second essay in the work is Dutch Involvement in the Armenian Question. This essay examines how the Netherlands became involved in the Armenian issue. From the 1878 Congress of Berlin onward, Armenians were used by European powers as a tool to interfere in Ottoman internal affairs. As events unfolded with the outbreak of the First World War, European powers sought to send observers to the region. Since it was inappropriate for an active belligerent to send inspectors, the idea of appointing a Dutch inspector gained traction. A key point discussed in the essay is the appointment in 1914 of Louis Constant Westenenk, Governor of the Dutch East Indies, as inspector to the region. The appointment of the Governor is among the most significant details in this study.
The Sublime Porte also welcomed the idea of a Dutch inspector from the outset and even Said Halim Pasha personally consulted Dutch authorities to determine whether any suitable Dutch East Indian candidate existed. Other European powers preferred the appointment of a neutral third party. A candidate had already emerged in the Netherlands: Governor Louis Constant Westenenk, a distinguished Dutch East Indian administrator who had been twice honored with royal orders and was then in the Netherlands on a ten-month leave while teaching in the provinces.
Other strong candidates considered for the inspectorship were a Belgian who had served in the Congo and a Swiss national. However, the Belgian’s candidacy was not favorably received due to the argument that “Armenians were not Black.” Ultimately, the Dutch Westenenk and the Norwegian Colonel Nicolai Hoff were accepted. The preference for an individual who had served in Asia and was familiar with the region when appointing an inspector to Eastern Anatolia may suggest that the Dutch, like other Europeans, viewed the “East” as similar, if not identical, in nature.
Pan-Islamism Between the Porte, the Hague and Buitenzorg is Schmidt’s third essay in the book. It reveals the Dutch approach to Pan-Islamism. The essay examines the efforts of Muslims in the Dutch colonies to assert their rights within the triangle of the Sublime Porte (Istanbul), The Hague and Buitenzorg (today known as Bogor, a city in Indonesia). The essay suggests that the Dutch had no reason to fear Pan-Islamism as other colonial European powers did, because the Netherlands was not a threat to the Ottoman Caliphate, unlike Britain or Russia. The Caliphate had no incentive to incite Muslims in the Dutch colonies.
The essay also notes that Muslims in Indonesia frequently communicated their grievances to Ottoman authorities and sought protection from colonial rule under the Ottoman Empire. As a result, the essay documents the diplomatic processes between the Ottoman Empire and the Netherlands. This essay is valuable for understanding the Ottoman Empire’s relations with Muslims in its Dutch colonies during the modern era.
Schmidt’s fourth essay, Showing the Flag: The Dutch Navy in Ottoman Waters, examines the Dutch practice of sending ships into Ottoman waters to advance their commercial and political interests. However According to Schmidt, the Dutch attempt to project naval power in Ottoman waters revealed that the Netherlands no longer possessed the maritime strength it had during its Golden Age. The Dutch fleet was too small and its manpower too limited to mount such a display. Most importantly, Dutch naval presence depended on British approval and support; they could not undertake such activities without British consent. This essay analyzes the maritime confrontations and diplomatic activities between the Ottoman Empire and the Netherlands.
The book From Anatolia to Indonesia: Opium Trade and The Dutch Community of Izmir, 1820-1940 is Schmidt’s other major work on the Netherlands’ Southeast Asian colonies and the Ottoman Empire. It generally provides data on opium production and trade. It explains how opium production and trade developed globally during the 19th century and their economic and political significance historical. Schmidt compares opium consumption in Asia and Europe. More specifically, when focusing on the aspect relevant to this study, he provides a detailed account of opium’s role in the Ottoman Empire. He presents quantitative data on opium production, trade and consumption in Anatolia and İzmir. At this point, he emphasizes the Ottoman Empire’s strict control over opium.
More specifically, he describes the role of Dutch merchants and sailors in Ottoman opium trade. Schmidt’s book details, with extensive numerical data and statistics, how opium grown in Anatolia was exported via Dutch merchants and colonists in İzmir to the Netherlands’ Southeast Asian colonies. Fluctuating prices from year to year are also documented. For example, in 1825, the price of one çeki of opium in İzmir ranged between 40 and 62 kuruş, but by 1868 it had risen to between 160 and 390 kuruş, before declining again. The primary source used in the work are Dutch archives.
Jan Schmidt, in both works, focuses on relations between the Ottoman Empire and the Netherlands’ Southeast Asian colonies. Schmidt does not examine these relations within a single context; he analyzes them from political, cultural, commercial and even military and maritime perspectives. Judging from Schmidt’s approach, his work can be described as evidence-based and as far as possible free from subjective interpretation. Two valuable works for studying relations between the Netherlands’ Dutch East Indies colonies and the Ottoman Empire are Through The Legation Window 1876-1926: Four Essays on Dutch, Dutch-Indian and Ottoman History and From Anatolia to Indonesia: Opium Trade and The Dutch Community of Izmir, 1820-1940.