Rose

Rose (Rosa spp.) is a perennial, shrub-like plant belonging to the Rosaceae (Rose family), with a wide distribution across the world. Throughout history, it has held an important place in various cultures due to its aesthetic, medicinal, and economic value. Rose species are generally native to Western Asia and Europe, with approximately 200 different species worldwide. Türkiye, in terms of rose species, is a region with exceptionally high genetic diversity and plays a significant role in global rose production.

Throughout history, the rose has been valued both as an ornamental plant and as a medicinal and cosmetic plant. In ancient Greek, Roman, and Persian civilizations, the rose was regarded as a symbol of beauty, love, and purity, and was used medicinally for treating skin conditions and in natural pharmaceutical preparations. During the Middle Ages in Europe, it was cultivated in monastery gardens and frequently featured in medical manuscripts as an ingredient in remedies. In the Ottoman period, the production of rose oil and rose water gained significant economic value, with the Isparta region emerging as a leading center for rose cultivation.

Türkiye holds a critical position in global rose production and trade. Among the country’s most important rose-growing regions are Isparta, Burdur, Afyon, and Denizli. Isparta, in particular, is a major area for intensive cultivation of Rosa damascena Mill. and ranks among the world’s leading producers of rose oil. Türkiye meets approximately 70% of the global demand for rose oil. This situation demonstrates that rose production holds major strategic importance for the country’s agricultural economy.

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Rose (Rosa spp.) is a perennial, shrub-like plant in the Rosaceae (Rose family). Approximately 200 rose species have been identified within this family, characterized typically by woody structures, thorny stems, and fragrant flowers. Rose species may be climbing, trailing, dwarf, or shrub-forming. Structurally, the rose plant has deep roots and is adaptable to various soil and climatic conditions.

Roses exhibit wide genetic diversity in their natural habitats. While over 200 rose species exist globally, approximately 35% are native to Türkiye. In Türkiye, 55 distinct taxa belonging to 46 species have been identified. These species vary according to geographic location and ecological conditions. To preserve genetic diversity and ensure sustainable cultivation, some species are protected in botanical gardens. Roses are widely used in genetic breeding programs to develop new, more resilient varieties through hybridization techniques.

Türkiye is a rich country in terms of both wild and cultivated rose species. Among its native roses are species such as Rosa canina (dog rose), Rosa gallica, and Rosa pisiformis. In particular, Rosa damascena (Isparta rose) is one of the most important cultivated species in Türkiye and holds significant economic value for rose oil production.

Native species are commonly found in the Black Sea, Mediterranean, and Central Anatolia regions. Cultivated roses grown in areas such as Isparta, Burdur, Afyon, and Denizli are used globally for rose oil production. While some native rose species in Türkiye are used for medicinal and aromatic purposes, others are valued as ornamental and landscape plants. Cultivated rose varieties are grown on a large commercial scale and are extensively utilized in the cosmetic, pharmaceutical, and food industries.

To preserve rose species and ensure sustainable production, modern agricultural techniques and genetic breeding programs are being implemented. Alongside traditional cultivation methods, in addition to tissue culture and genetic engineering techniques, efforts aim to develop more productive and disease-resistant varieties.

The rose plant thrives best in temperate and semi-arid climates. Optimal yields are typically obtained at elevations between 800 and 1500 meters. Roses are sensitive to temperature fluctuations, with extreme cold or high heat negatively affecting yield. The optimum growth temperature ranges between 15–25°C.

In terms of soil, the rose plant performs best in well-drained, slightly alkaline (pH 6.0–7.5), and humus-rich soils. Soils with high water retention capacity, such as clay or heavy soils, are unsuitable for rose cultivation. Regular irrigation is of great importance in rose production, particularly during the flowering period when water demand increases.

Türkiye holds a significant position in global rose production and has regions with suitable climatic and soil conditions. The most intensive rose-growing areas in Türkiye are as follows:

• Isparta: Türkiye’s largest rose production center and the most important region for cultivating Rosa damascena. It holds a prominent place globally for rose oil production.
• Burdur: This neighboring region to Isparta produces high-quality roses, particularly in its higher elevation areas.
• Afyon and Denizli: Regions where rose cultivation has expanded in recent years, with production primarily targeting the cosmetic and food industries.
• Balıkesir, Kütahya, and Sakarya: Areas with dense populations of wild roses and potential for commercial rose production.

Roses grown in these regions exhibit different quality and aroma characteristics due to climatic conditions and soil composition. These differences are particularly critical in determining the quality of rose oil.

In recent years, climate change has significantly impacted rose production. Rising global temperatures and altered precipitation patterns have negatively affected flowering duration and yield. Sudden temperature increases in spring cause premature bud opening, leading to yield loss.

Additionally, declining water resources and increased drought risk are raising irrigation demands in rose cultivation. The adoption of sustainable farming practices and water-efficient irrigation systems in rose-growing regions constitutes one of the key measures against climate change. Furthermore, developing more resilient rose varieties and adaptation studies are essential for improving production efficiency.

Traditional rose cultivation methods involve natural, low-cost techniques practiced for many years. These include propagation by seed, cuttings, and grafting of seedlings. In traditional methods, organic fertilizers are commonly used to enhance soil fertility, and water needs are met primarily by natural rainfall.

Modern cultivation methods are scientifically supported techniques designed to increase productivity and produce disease-resistant rose varieties. These include tissue culture, controlled-environment greenhouse cultivation, and biotechnological applications. Modern techniques accelerate the growth process of the rose plant while increasing both yield and product quality.

Soil and climate factors are of great importance in rose cultivation. The rose plant prefers well-drained, humus-rich, and slightly alkaline soils. Soil pH should generally range between 6.0 and 7.5. Heavy soils with high water retention capacity are unsuitable for production as they can cause root rot.

Climatically, roses grow best in temperate and semi-arid regions. The optimum temperature range is 15–25°C, and the plant is sensitive to temperature fluctuations. High temperatures can negatively affect flowering, while extreme cold can damage buds during the budding stage.

Regular fertilization is necessary to prevent nutrient deficiencies in rose cultivation. Organic and chemical fertilizers are often used together. Phosphorus- and potassium-rich fertilizers support flowering, while nitrogen-rich fertilizers promote vegetative growth.

Irrigation is another key factor directly affecting yield in rose production. Regular watering during the flowering period enhances flower quality. Drip irrigation systems are preferred due to their water-saving properties and direct water delivery to the plant. Over-irrigation, however, must be avoided as it can lead to root rot.

The most common pests in rose cultivation include spider mites (Tetranychus urticae), aphids (Aphidoidea), and thrips. Pest management is achieved through biological control and chemical applications. Under Integrated Pest Management (IPM), natural predators are used to control pests while minimizing chemical usage.

Various diseases threaten plant health in rose cultivation. These are typically caused by fungi, bacteria, and viruses. The most common fungal diseases include powdery mildew (Podosphaera pannosa), rust (Phragmidium spp.), black spot (Diplocarpon rosae), and botrytis blight (Botrytis cinerea).

• Powdery Mildew (Podosphaera pannosa): Forms a white powdery coating on leaves, reducing the plant’s photosynthetic capacity.
• Rust (Phragmidium spp.): Produces orange-red spores on the undersides of leaves, leading to severe leaf drop.
• Black Spot (Diplocarpon rosae): Causes black spots on leaves, weakening the plant through premature defoliation.
• Botrytis Blight (Botrytis cinerea): Causes brown rot on flowers, thriving especially in humid conditions.

To control these diseases, cultural practices such as selecting resistant varieties, ensuring good air circulation in cultivation areas, and regular pruning should be prioritized.

The rose plant is susceptible to attacks by various insect and mite species. The most common pests are:

• Aphids (Aphidoidea): Congregate on young shoots and undersides of leaves, feeding on sap and stunting growth.
• Spider Mites (Tetranychus urticae): Cause yellowing and drying of leaves.
• Thrips (Frankliniella spp.): Cause discoloration of flowers and leaves.

Biological methods play a vital role in controlling these pests. The use of beneficial insects (e.g., ladybugs and parasitic wasps) reduces chemical pesticide use and enhances environmental sustainability. Mechanical methods, such as regularly washing leaves or manually removing pests, are also applied within integrated pest management.

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is an approach that combines biological, cultural, and mechanical control methods while minimizing chemical interventions. Common IPM practices include:

1. Use of Resistant Varieties: Selecting rose varieties resistant to diseases and pests.
2. Cultural Practices: Pruning, regulating plant density, and using healthy planting material.
3. Biological Control: Utilizing natural predator insects.
4. Chemical Control: Using pesticides only when necessary, with minimal environmental impact.

The most commonly used species in rose oil production is Rosa damascena Mill. Large-scale production occurs in countries such as Türkiye, Bulgaria, Morocco, and Iran. Additionally, Rosa gallica, Rosa centifolia, and some local species are cultivated for essential oil extraction.

In Türkiye, rose oil production is concentrated primarily in Isparta and its surroundings. The Rosa damascena grown in this region is renowned worldwide for its high essential oil content and superior quality.

Rose oil production is carried out using different methods depending on the processing of the flowers. The most common methods are:

• Steam Distillation: The most widely used method, involving distillation of rose petals with steam to separate the essential oil. This method yields the highest quality rose oil.
• Solvent Extraction: A less expensive and more efficient method, but the resulting product, called absolute, is not considered fully natural.
• CO₂ Extraction: A method using high-pressure carbon dioxide, increasingly favored in recent years.

Rose oil acquires its distinctive aroma and therapeutic properties through its various volatile components. The most important constituents are:

• Citronellol (%30–45): Provides a sweet, refreshing scent.
• Geraniol (%10–20): One of the primary components of the rose fragrance.
• Nerol (%5–12): Has a pleasant, slightly sweet aroma profile.
• Phenylethyl Alcohol (%1–3): Contributes a light floral and sweet aroma.

The quality of rose oil is directly related to the proportions of these components. Production region, climatic conditions, and processing method are key factors affecting quality. The highest quality rose oils in the international market are generally sourced from Isparta and Bulgaria.

Quality control in rose oil production is performed using advanced analytical methods such as gas chromatography (GC) and mass spectrometry (MS), which determine the oil’s composition and purity level.

Rose trade holds significant economic importance, particularly through the production and export of high-value products such as rose oil and rose water. Türkiye is among the world’s largest producers of rose oil, with intensive cultivation in Isparta, Burdur, Afyon, and Denizli. Türkiye meets approximately 70% of global rose oil demand and, alongside together with Bulgaria, Iran, and Morocco, is one of the most important players in the global market.

Globally, the largest rose producers include Türkiye, Bulgaria, Iran, Morocco, and India. Rose oil produced in Türkiye is in high demand, particularly in European and American markets, where it is regarded as a high-quality product in the perfume and cosmetic industries.

Rose-based products exported from Türkiye include rose oil, rose water, rose jam, and dried rose petals. Major export markets include France, Germany, the USA, and Japan. France, being one of the world’s largest perfume producers, is one of the largest buyers of Turkish rose oil.

Türkiye’s main competitor in rose exports is Bulgaria. While Bulgaria’s production is primarily oriented toward the European market, Türkiye exports to both European and Asian markets. Turkish rose products hold a competitive position internationally due to high-quality production processes and geographic advantages.

Rose cultivation provides an important livelihood source for many farmers, especially in rural areas of Türkiye. Rose production and processing generate significant employment, particularly in Isparta and its surroundings. Export revenues from rose-based products constitute a major source of foreign exchange for Türkiye, generating millions of dollars annually.

Rose products are used not only in the perfume and cosmetic industries but also in food, pharmaceutical, and aromatherapy sectors. Food products such as rose jam, rose lokum, and rose syrup are in high demand, especially in the Middle East and Asian markets.

The rose plant possesses potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties due to its rich chemical composition. Various rose species, particularly Rosa damascena, contain phenolic compounds, flavonoids, and essential oils. These components prevent cellular damage caused by free radicals and exhibit anti-inflammatory effects.

Rose compounds include phenolic acids (gallic acid, chlorogenic acid), flavonoids (kaempferol, quercetin), and terpenoids. These constituents are known for their immune-boosting and anti-aging effects. Additionally, rose oil and rose water demonstrate soothing and regenerative effects on the skin.

In traditional medicine, the rose has been used for centuries to treat various ailments. In Ottoman medicine, rose water was recommended for stomach disorders, mouth ulcers, and nervous system disturbances. In Iranian and Indian traditional medicine, rose oil and rose water were used for digestive disorders, skin conditions, and headaches.

In modern phytotherapy, rose extracts show calming effects on depression, anxiety, and sleep disorders. Various pharmacological studies indicate that rose essential oils may have sedative and antidepressant effects on the central nervous system. Additionally, rose water is widely used as a skin cleanser due to its mild antiseptic properties.

Rose oil and rose water have broad applications in the cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries. Rose-based cosmetic products include creams, lotions, face masks, and toners. Rose oil, in particular, is favored in many cosmetic formulations due to its skin-renewing and anti-aging properties.

In pharmacy, rose extracts are used in medical creams, antiseptic solutions, and natural drug formulations due to their antimicrobial and wound-healing properties. Thanks to their anti-inflammatory effects, rose-based products are preferred as adjunctive agents in treating skin conditions such as eczema and dermatitis.

Due to its aromatic properties and health benefits, the rose is an important ingredient in the food industry. Products derived from rose petals and extracts are widely used in sweets, beverages, and traditional cuisine. The most common rose-based food products in Türkiye are:

• Rose Jam: Produced in Isparta and surrounding areas from Rosa damascena flowers, it has a sweet and aromatic flavor.
• Rose Syrup: A beverage dating back to Ottoman cuisine, valued for its cooling and soothing effects.
• Rose Lokum: A special variety of traditional Turkish delight flavored with rose aroma.

These products are in high demand both domestically and in export markets, particularly to Middle Eastern and European countries. Rose-based food products are classified as functional foods due to their antioxidant properties.

Rose oil and rose water are considered among the most valuable ingredients in perfumery and personal care. Rose essential oil is widely used in the luxury perfume industry due to its high volatility and long-lasting fragrance. France, Türkiye, and Bulgaria are among the world’s leading producers of high-quality rose oil, and these oils serve as key components in formulations by renowned perfume brands.

Rose water and rose extracts are used in skincare products for their moisturizing, soothing, and regenerative effects. Rose-containing products include facial toners, creams, shampoos, and body lotions. Additionally, rose-based cosmetics slow the skin’s aging process due to their antioxidant properties.

In recent years, rose essential oils have been increasingly used in functional food products. Due to their antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory properties, rose extracts have been evaluated across a wide range, from healthy beverages to dietary supplements. Rose oil is used as a natural flavoring agent in some beverages and is included in digestive-supporting products due to its stomach-soothing effects.

Additionally, the use of rose essential oils in sweet and baked goods is increasing. For example, in confectionery and sugar industries, rose aroma is preferred to create unique flavors.

The rose is a plant group with high genetic diversity, exhibiting wide variation in both wild and cultivated forms. Türkiye possesses a rich geography for wild rose species, with 55 distinct taxa identified across 46 species. Preserving these species is of great importance for maintaining sustainable genetic diversity.

To conserve native rose species, seed storage programs are conducted in various botanical gardens and gene banks in Türkiye. Particularly for endemic and rare species, both in situ and ex situ conservation methods are applied. To ensure sustainable genetic diversity, monitoring of natural populations and conservation projects for their habitats are underway in various regions.

Various breeding programs are conducted to improve yield and quality in rose cultivation. Breeding programs aim to develop new varieties that are disease-resistant, high-yielding, and rich in high-quality essential oils. In Türkiye, breeding efforts focused on Rosa damascena aim to increase the efficiency of rose oil production.

Common methods in rose breeding include selection, hybridization (crossbreeding), and mutation breeding. Traditional selection methods involve choosing high-yielding individuals from natural populations to create new varieties. Controlled crossbreeding studies have also developed disease-resistant varieties with high essential oil content.

In recent years, biotechnology-assisted studies in rose breeding have gained increasing importance. Alongside traditional breeding methods, tissue culture techniques are used to enhance genetic diversity and develop new disease-resistant varieties. Tissue culture offers significant advantages in conserving rare species and producing high-quality seedlings.

Additionally, genetic engineering applications are being used to improve traits such as flowering time, color, and essential oil composition in certain rose species. Genetic modification techniques are employed to enhance disease resistance and develop rose varieties more resilient to environmental stress factors.