Known by his real name Muhyiddin Pîrî, Pîrî Reis is regarded as one of the most prolific figures in 16th-century Ottoman maritime history, both militarily and scientifically. He held high-ranking positions in the navy during the reigns of Yavuz Sultan Selim and Kanuni Sultan Süleyman, but gained his lasting fame through his works that entered the annals of global cartography. His career, which began with Mediterranean piracy (gaza), culminated in official state admiralship and ended under the shadow of political and military conflicts in Kahire, where he was executed.

Precise information regarding the date and place of Pîrî Reis’s birth remains unclear due to limitations in archival sources. However, based on statements in the Kitâb-ı Bahriye and modern research, it is generally accepted that his family originated from Karaman and was relocated first to İstanbul and then to Gelibolu, the naval base of the era, under the population transfer policies of Fatih Sultan Mehmed. His approximate birth date is placed between 1465 and 1470.^【1】

His introduction to seafaring occurred under the guidance of his famous uncle, the Ottoman naval commander Kemal Reis. As a young levend (volunteer sailor), he participated in independent raids along the coasts of Spain, France, Corsica, and Sardinia in the western Mediterranean between 1481 and 1494. This period enabled Pîrî Reis to gain practical knowledge of the Mediterranean geography, wind patterns, and port characteristics, laying the foundation for his future works.^【2】

^{Portrait of Pîrî Reis (}AA⁾

II. Bayezid, aiming to elevate the Ottoman navy to a level capable of competing with Venice in open seas, invited experienced Turkish corsairs into state service. Responding to this call, Piri Reis arrived in Istanbul in 1494 alongside his uncle Kemal Reis, formally entered the imperial presence, and was officially inducted into the Ottoman navy. This transition elevated his status from that of a levend to an official Reis receiving a state salary (ulûfe).

Piri Reis’s first major test in the navy came during the Ottoman-Venetian Wars of 1499–1502. The battle of August 1499, known in naval history as the Battle of Zonchio (Sapienza Naval Battle), marked the first major open-sea engagement in which the Ottomans effectively employed galleys and artillery. Piri Reis served as a ship commander in Kemal Reis’s main fleet and played a key role in the destruction of the Venetian navy. Following the war, the strategic Venetian fortresses of Modon and Koron, known as the “Two Eyes,” along with Navarino, were captured. During these conquests, Piri Reis did not merely fulfill a military role; he also meticulously recorded the topography, defensive arrangements, and water depths of these ports, gathering data for his future work, the Kitâb-ı Bahriye.

In 1511, during the rise of Ottoman naval power, became a turning point for Piri Reis. His uncle and patron, Kemal Reis, perished when his ship sank during a violent storm in the Aegean Sea. Kemal Reis’s death deprived Piri Reis not only of a family elder but also of his strongest political patron at court.^【3】

^{World Map Drawn by Pîrî Reis in 1513 (}AA⁾

Due to the spiritual shock of this loss and shifting political circumstances, Piri Reis withdrew from active naval campaigns and retired to Gelibolu. However, this period was not one of passive mourning but of intense scholarly production. During these “retreat” years in Gelibolu (1511–1513), he organized notes from his voyages with his uncle and alone, studied captured foreign maps, and produced the 1513 World Map, one of the most important works in the history of global cartography. Thus, Kemal Reis’s death paradoxically provided the foundation for Piri Reis to transition from a military identity to that of a cartographer.

Piri Reis’s place in the history of world science is defined not by his military successes but by his contributions to cartography.

• 1513 World Map: Pîrî Reis traveled to Kahire with the fleet during Yavuz Sultan Selim’s Egyptian campaign (1516–1517) and presented his famous world map to the sultan. Drawn on gazelle skin and surviving only in a fragment depicting the Atlantic Ocean and the American coastlines, this map synthesizes information from Christopher Columbus’s lost map, Portuguese charts, and Islamic geographical sources. It is regarded as the pinnacle of 16th-century cartography for its remarkably accurate depiction of the South American coastline.^【4】

• 1528 Second World Map and North America: Fifteen years after his first world map, Piri Reis presented Kanuni Sultan Süleyman with a second world map, considered the zenith of his cartographic skill. Created on camel skin using eight colors, only a fragment measuring 68x69 cm from the northwest corner of this map has survived. This fragment covers the region extending from southern Greenland through Canada, Newfoundland (Terra Nova), Florida, Cuba, the Bahamas, and the coasts of Central America.

• Kitâb-ı Bahriye (1521 and 1526): This magnum opus of Piri Reis is a detailed maritime guide to the coasts, islands, and harbors of the Aegean and Mediterranean. Expanded at the urging of Grand Vizier Pargalı İbrahim Paşa and presented to Kanuni Sultan Süleyman in 1526, the second version is not merely a technical manual but also an encyclopedic source of information on the region’s history, culture, and economy.^【5】

As Portuguese threats increased in the Indian Ocean and the safety of the spice trade routes came under jeopardy, Piri Reis was appointed to the position of Captaincy of India (also known as Captaincy of Egypt) in 1547. Although advanced in age at the time of his appointment, his intimate knowledge of the region and extensive seafaring experience made him the ideal candidate. His first strategic success in this role was the recapture of Aden from Portuguese-backed local forces in 1548–1549. The conquest of Aden brought the entrance to the Red Sea under Ottoman control and strengthened Ottoman authority in Yemen.^【6】

However, the defining episode of Piri Reis’s fate began with his Second Indian Campaign in 1552. Departing from Süveyş with a fleet of thirty vessels (galleys, galleons, and bastarnas) and approximately 850 soldiers, he sailed through the Bab al-Mandab Strait toward the Omani coast and laid siege to Maskat, one of the key Portuguese strongholds. After a brief siege, Maskat Fortress was captured, the Portuguese commander and garrison taken prisoner, and the fortifications demolished. This victory was significant in demonstrating the Ottoman navy’s operational capability in open-sea campaigns.^【7】

Following the victory at Maskat, Piri Reis turned his attention to Hürmüz Island, seen as the key to the Persian Gulf. Although Ottoman forces captured the city of Hürmüz and seized considerable plunder during the siege beginning on 19 September 1552, they failed to take the inner citadel where the Portuguese had taken refuge. Sources indicate that Piri Reis did not bring heavy siege artillery capable of breaching the fortress walls, and this was the primary technical factor behind the failure of the siege. As the siege continued, intelligence arrived that the Portuguese Governor of Goa was approaching with a large fleet. According to Portuguese sources, the main reason Piri Reis lifted the siege was fear of the approaching Portuguese navy. The claim in Ottoman sources that Piri Reis accepted a bribe from the Hürmüz inhabitants and withdrew is not corroborated by Portuguese chronicles; on the contrary, the Portuguese expressed surprise at his sudden departure.^【8】

Concerned that the Portuguese might block the exit of the Persian Gulf, Piri Reis lifted the siege and withdrew his fleet to Basra. However, in Basra, he encountered a serious conflict of authority and strategy with Kubad Paşa, the governor of the region. Kubad Paşa accused Piri Reis of failing to adequately resist the Portuguese and was reluctant to provide the necessary logistical support to the fleet.

Recognizing that repairs and maintenance of the fleet would take considerable time and fearing that the Portuguese navy might blockade the Gulf of Basra, Piri Reis made a risky decision. He left the majority of his fleet and troops in Basra and secretly set sail with three (some sources say two) galleys laden with plunder, heading back to Süveyş. During the voyage, one of the ships ran aground and broke apart. Piri Reis reached Egypt with the remaining vessels. His departure from Basra, leaving behind his fleet and soldiers while returning with the plunder, was reported to Istanbul as “military desertion” and “disobedience.” The complaints sent by Kubad Paşa to the central administration played a decisive role in the issuance of Piri Reis’s death warrant.^【9】

Negative reports submitted to Istanbul by Kubad Paşa, Governor of Basra, and Dukakinzade Mehmed Paşa, Governor of Egypt, led to Piri Reis being charged with “misuse of duty” and “abandoning the fleet.” His defense—that he had executed a strategic withdrawal to prevent the fleet from being trapped in the gulf—was not accepted, due to the influence of his political rivals and his advanced age of over eighty years, which was perceived as a sign of physical decline.

In accordance with the decree of Kanuni Sultan Süleyman, Pîrî Reis was executed in Kahire in late 1553 or early 1554. After his execution, the state confiscated all of his property and transferred it to Istanbul. Piri Reis’s execution is viewed not merely as a consequence of military failure but as the outcome of a conflict between central authority and provincial bureaucracy.^【10】