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Metallic materials are a general term for metallic elements or materials whose primary component is metal and which exhibit metallic properties. This group includes pure metals, alloys, intermetallic compounds, and special metallic materials. Metallic materials have played a central role in the development of human history, giving their names to periods such as the Bronze Age and Iron Age following the Stone Age and forming the fundamental material basis for the advancement of civilization. Toda

Material aging encompasses all irreversible changes in a material’s physical, chemical, or mechanical properties over time. These changes lead to noticeable declines in performance due to factors such as environmental conditions, service duration, and internal structure. The phenomenon of aging can affect all engineering materials—not only natural materials but also metal alloys, polymers, bitumen, and composite structures. In particular, aging of structural components subjected to load or direc

Rail is a steel component in railway systems that guides wheeled vehicles, serving both as a carrier and a director. Rails transfer loads to sleepers, which then distribute them to the ballast, ensuring that wheels move safely, quietly, and with minimal friction.Structural Composition of RailsModern railway rails are manufactured from homogeneous steel materials shaped into a standard I-shaped (inverted T) cross-section. Their fundamental structural components are:Rail Head: The part that comes

A Frenkel pair is a type of point defect observed in crystalline materials. In this defect, an atom or ion departs from its regular lattice site and occupies an interstitial position within the crystal; the original site left behind becomes a vacancy. As a result, a vacancy and an interstitial atom form a paired entity that balances each other, known as a “Frenkel pair” (Figure 1). The Frenkel defect is a stoichiometric defect, meaning it does not alter the overall composition or electrical neut